赤松幼苗接种菌根真菌生长效应的初步研究

以赤松幼苗接种松茸菌进行盆栽和圃地栽培试验,研究菌根菌感染数量和菌根菌对苗木生长效应的影响。结果表明:在盆栽条件下,三种处理根系菌根真菌的感染指数分别为80、50、3,截根接种和不截根接种分别为对照的26.7倍和16.7倍,且截根处理是不截根的1.6倍;幼苗苗高、地径生长量显著提高,干重比对照分别增加33.3%和18.5%。在圃地条件下,截根接种与不截根接种的幼苗苗高、地径生长量比对照分别提高5.4%、4.2%和14.9%、6.9%。     

Ectomycorrhizal fungi affect the physiological responses of Picea glauca and Pinus banksiana seedlings exposed to an NaCl gradient

We tested the effects of ectomycorrhizal (ECM) inoculation on greenhouse-grown white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss) and jack pine (Pinus banksiana L.) seedlings to be used for revegetation of salt-affected tailing sands resulting from the exploitation of oil sand in northeastern Alberta, Canada. White spruce and jack pine seedlings were inoculated with three ECM fungi selected for their in vitro tolerance to excess Na+ and Cl-: Hebeloma crustuliniforme (Bull) Quel. UAMH 5247, Laccaria bicolor Maire (Orton) UAMH 8232 and a Suillus tomentosus (Kauff.) Sing., Snell and Dick isolate from a salt-affected site. The physiological responses of the seedlings to a gradient of NaCl concentration (0, 50, 100 and 200 mM) were assessed over four weeks by: (1) Na+ accumulation and allocation; (2) chlorophyll a fluorescence; (3) growth, (4) water content; and (5) organic osmolyte accumulation. Jack pine seedlings were more sensitive than white spruce seedlings to increasing Na+ and Cl- concentrations. Both species showed decreasing biomass accumulation, and increasing concentrations of organic osmotica and Na with increasing NaCl concentration. White spruce seedlings inoculated with the S. tomentosus isolate had the best growth response at all NaCl concentrations tested. Although jack pine seedlings inoculated with the L. bicolor or S. tomentosus isolate exhibited the highest growth in the 50 and 100 mM NaCl treatments, both fungi increased the photochemical stress and dehydration of their hosts in the 200 mM NaCl treatment. At the latter concentration, jack pine seedlings inoculated with H. crustuliniforme showed the greatest tolerance to salt stress. Although the different fungi altered the physiological response of the host in different ways, inoculation with salt-stress-tolerant ECM fungi increased growth and reduced the negative effects of excess NaCl. Use of controlled mycorrhization may increase survival of coniferous seedlings used for revegetation of salt-affected sites.     

Carbon allocation, root exudation and mycorrhizal colonization of Pinus echinata seedlings grown under CO(2) enrichment

Increased exudation of carbon compounds from roots may provide a mechanism for enhancement of nutrient availability to plants growing in a CO(2)-enriched atmosphere. Therefore, the effect of atmospheric CO(2) concentration on carbon allocation and root exudation was investigated in Pinus echinata Mill. (shortleaf pine) seedlings. After 34 and 41 weeks, seedlings growing in 695 microl l(-1) CO(2) allocated proportionately more (14)C-labeled photosynthate to fine roots than did seedlings growing in ambient air. This was associated with greater fine root mass and mycorrhizal density in CO(2)-enriched plants after 34 weeks. Exudation of soluble, (14)C-labeled compounds from roots also was greater in these plants at 34 weeks, but the effect of CO(2) concentration on exudation did not persist at 41 weeks.     

Nutrient uptake by intact mycorrhizal Pinus sylvestris seedlings: a diagnostic tool to detect copper toxicity

We developed a nondestructive method for detecting early toxic effects of inflethal copper (Cu) concentrations on ectomycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal (NM) Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings. The fungal symbionts examined were Paxillus involutus (Fr.) Fr., Suillus luteus (Fr.) S.F. Gray and Thelephora terrestris (Ehrh.) Fr. The accumulation of Cu in needles and fungal development (ergosterol) in roots and infstrate were assessed. Inorganic phosphate (P(i)) and ammonium (NH(4) (+)) uptake capacities were determined in a semi-hydroponic cultivation system on intact P-limited plants that were exposed for 3 weeks to 0.32 (control), 8 or 16 &mgr;moles Cu(2+). Short-term effects of a 1-hour exposure to 32 &mgr;moles Cu(2+) on nutrient uptake rates were also determined. None of the Cu(2+) treatments affected plant growth or root ergosterol concentrations. The active fungal biomass in infstrate invaded by S. luteus was reduced by 50% in the 16 &mgr;M Cu(2+) treatment compared with the control treatment; however, colonization by S. luteus prevented an increased accumulation of Cu in the needles. In contrast, the 16 &mgr;M Cu(2+) treatment caused a 2.2-fold increase in needle Cu concentration in NM plants. Ergosterol concentrations in the infstrate colonized by P. involutus and T. terrestris were not affected by 16 &mgr;molar Cu(2+). Although P. involutus and T. terrestris were less sensitive to Cu(2+) than S. luteus, T. terrestris did not prevent the accumulation of Cu in needles of its host plant in the 16 &mgr;molar Cu(2+) treatment. Mycorrhizal plants consistently had higher P(i) and NH(4) (+) uptake capacities than NM plants. In the control treatment, specific P(i) uptake rates were almost 10, 4 and 3 times higher in plants associated with P. involutus, S. luteus and T. terrestris, respectively, than in NM plants, and specific NH(4) (+) uptake rates were about 2, 2 and 5 times higher, respectively, than those of NM seedlings. Compared with the corresponding control plants, a 3-week exposure to 8 &mgr;M Cu(2+) had no effect on the nutrient uptake potential of plants. In contrast, the 16 &mgr;M Cu(2+) treatment significantly reduced P(i) uptake capacity of all plants and decreased NH(4) (+) uptake capacity of seedlings colonized by S. luteus or T. terrestris. The 32 &mgr;M Cu(2+) 1-h shock treatment reduced specific NH(4) (+) and P(i) uptake rates of roots colonized by S. luteus to 39 and 77%, respectively, of the original rates. The Cu(2+) 1-h shock treatment reduced the NH(4) (+) uptake rate of NM plants by 51%.     

Effect of an ectomycorrhizal fungus,Laccaria laccata,on Fusarium damping-off in Pinus banksiana seedlings

Damping-off caused by Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht in Pinus banksiana Lamb, was reduced significantly when inoculated with an ectomycorrhizal fungus, Laccaria laccata (Scop. ex Fr.) Berk. and Br. In paired culture, growth of F. oxysporum was significantly reduced by L. laccata. The number of colony forming units of F. oxysporum was reduced significantly in the rhizosphere of P. banksiana seedlings when inoculated with L. laccata. Spore germination and germ tube length of F. oxysporum was inhibited strongly by culture filtrate of L. laccata and root exudate of P. banksiana inoculated with L. laccata. Mycorrhizal seedlings had significantly higher amount of total soluble phenols than nonmycorrhizal ones.     

Changes in protein synthesis during drought conditioning in roots of jack pine seedlings (Pinus banksiana Lamb.)

The impact of drought conditioning on the ability of eight-week-old jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) seedlings to withstand drought was assessed. Two progressive cycles of drought conditioning significantly increased the survival of seedlings subjected to a subsequent prolonged drought. The in vivo accumulation of several root membrane proteins during drought conditioning was correlated with an increase in seedling survival. A group of root proteins, ranging in molecular mass from 43 to 47 kDa, increased accumulation during one cycle of drought conditioning and to a lesser extent during two cycles of drought conditioning. The accumulation of several low molecular mass membrane and soluble proteins also increased during drought conditioning, suggesting that these proteins may play an important role in the enhancement of drought tolerance. In vitro translation studies showed a general increase in the abundance of protein products encoded by mRNAs from drought-conditioned seedlings. Although the majority of the in vitro translation products appeared in both control and drought-conditioned seedlings, one mRNA encoding a 15 kDA translated protein was more prominent during the second cycle of drought conditioning.     

Root-associated fungi of healthy-looking Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies seedlings in Swedish forest nurseries

The aim of this study was to assess fungal communities in roots of healthy-looking Pinus sylvestris L. and Picea abies (L.) Karst. seedlings in nine forest nurseries in Sweden using a combination of traditional culturing and direct sequencing of internal transcribed spacer of fungal ribosomal RNA (ITS rRNA) from the roots. Culturing from 1800 surface-sterilised root segments resulted in 2387 fungal cultures representing 42 different taxa. Direct sequencing from 180 root segments resulted in 119 ITS rRNA sequences representing 25 different taxa. In total, 55 different fungal taxa were detected using both methods. Although direct sequencing was more efficient than culturing in detecting different fungal taxa, both methods provided complementary information about fungal communities in roots since each detected rather different groups of fungi. The most dominant taxa detected by culturing were Trichoderma viride Pers. (19.5%), Phoma mucivora Davey & Currah (19.1%), Phialocephala fortinii Wang & Wilcox (17.4%) and Meliniomyces variabilis Hambl. & Sigler (10.2%), while Thelephora terrestris Ehrh. (26.1%), Unidentified sp. NS126 (25.2%) and Heliotales sp. C20 (10.1%) were most commonly detected by direct sequencing. In conclusion, results showed that forest nurseries in Sweden harbour diverse communities of fungi associated with the roots of healthy-looking P. sylvestris and P. abies seedlings. Although fungal communities were often dominated by saprotrophs and endophytes, several facultative pathogens were also detected indicating that under suitable conditions they may be a potential threat to the plants.     

Effects of shade on arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization and growth of crops and tree seedlings in Central India

The study was conducted to investigate the effects of different light intensities (25, 50, 67, and 100% of full sun [open]) on arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) colonization and growth of two intercrops (a rainy season crop, Phaseolus mungo Roxb. var. PU-35 and a winter crop, Triticum aestivum L. var. WH-147) and seedlings of two multipurpose tree species (Eucalyptus tereticornis Sm. [Clone C-7, ITC, Bhadrachalam] and Albizia procera Benth.) of Central India. The results showed that various plant growth parameters viz., shoot length, dry weight and phosphorus (P) uptake were adversely affected by low light intensity. Inoculations with AM fungi (Acaulospora scrobiculata Trappe, Glomus intraradix Schenck & Smith and an unidentified Glomus species) increased the plant growth on account of all measured parameters under tested light conditions. Mycorrhizal efficiency of different AM fungi varied in narrow range. AM inoculants were more efficient at higher light intensity in above mentioned plant species, except wheat. Data on colonization of P. mungo, T. aestivum, E. tereticornis and A. procera showed that formation of arbuscules, vesicles and sporocarp was delayed by lower light intensity. Colonization index of host roots and spore counts increased with increase in light intensity during successive months after inoculation. Data on effect of light regimes on microclimate of net house showed that lux meter reading decreased as per grades of shading nets used during both rainy and winter seasons. With increase in light intensity, ambient temperature, soil surface temperature and sub surface temperature at 15 cm depth increased, except that the ambient and soil surface temperature in control (open) were slightly lower than net house observations during January and February. Value of ambient temperature varied in narrow range, with in treatments as compared to soil surface and sub soil surface temperature at 15 cm depth. Soil surface temperature at 25% of full sunlight was less than respective control values by 2–11°C and sub soil temperature at 15 cm depth was less by 4–12°C. The values of different microclimate parameters varied in narrower range during winter season as compared to rainy season. While ranking the importance of two factors studied—light and AM fungi—for their effect on the growth and P uptake by different plant species, inoculations with AM fungi came in the first place (explained 50–82% variation) and light substantially increased the values of R ² in stepwise regression analysis (forward selection). The results suggest that AM inoculation may enhance the growth and P uptake of intercrops under tree shade and the tree canopy management is likely to increase the efficiency of AM inoculants in agroforestry systems. Use of excessive shading (25% of full sun or more) in nurseries may be avoided and PAR (photosynthetically active radiation) lamps may be used to increase growth and colonization index of tree seedlings.     

两株外生菌根真菌对盐渍土壤中黑松幼苗生长的影响

为了研究外生菌根真菌对宿主植物黑松幼苗耐盐性的影响,采用盆栽实验,将成功侵染菌种土生空团菌(Cg)、紫晶蜡蘑(La)的黑松幼苗移栽于盐渍土壤中,培育3个月后,测定相关生理指标。结果表明:1)与非菌根化幼苗相比,接种菌根真菌Cg和La显著提高了针叶叶绿素a(由0.78 mg/g FW增加到1.27 mg/g FW和1.47 mg/g FW)和叶绿素b(由0.28 mg/g FW增加到0.40 mg/g FW和0.43 mg/g FW)的含量,增加了宿主体内脯氨酸含量(地上部:La> Cg> NM;地下部:La> Cg> NM),增强了K^+的吸收、转运,有效地维持(Cg菌种)或是降低(La菌种)了宿主地上部分Na^+/K^+的比值;显著(P <0.05)降低了宿主幼苗地下部的Na^+/K^+比值(由0.70降低到0.47和0.64)。2)外生菌根真菌有利于松树幼苗的生长,提高了其耐盐性,但因菌种而异(La> Cg)。深入研究不同菌种对不同宿主植物耐盐性的影响,将会成为后续菌根技术研究的一个重要方向,为沿海滩涂盐碱地的植被恢复提供理论依据及技术支持。     

Soil DIC uptake and fixation in Pinus taeda seedlings and its C contribution to plant tissues and ectomycorrhizal fungi

Plants can acquire carbon from sources other than atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO(2)), including soil-dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC). Although the net flux of CO(2) is out of the root, soil DIC can be taken up by the root, transported within the plant, and fixed either photosynthetically or anaplerotically by plant tissues. We tested the ability of Pinus taeda L. seedlings exposed to (13)C-labeled soil DIC and two NH(4)(+) availability regimes to take up and fix soil DIC. We also measured the concentration and distribution of the fixed soil DIC within the plant and mycorrhizal tissues, and quantified the contribution of soil DIC to whole-plant carbon (C) gain. Seedlings exposed to labeled DIC were significantly enriched in (13)C compared with seedlings exposed to unlabeled DIC (6.7 versus -31.7 per thousand). Fixed soil DIC was almost evenly distributed between above- and belowground biomass (55 and 45%, respectively), but was unevenly distributed among tissues. Aboveground, stem tissue contained 65% of the fixed soil DIC but represented only 27% of the aboveground biomass, suggesting either corticular photosynthesis or preferential stem allocation. Belowground, soil DIC had the greatest effect (measured as (13)C enrichment) on the C pool of rapidly growing nonmycorrhizal roots. Soil DIC contributed approximately 0.8% to whole-plant C gain, and approximately 1.6% to belowground C gain. We observed a slight but nonsignificant increase in both relative C gain and the contribution of soil DIC to C gain in NH(4)(+)-fertilized seedlings. Increased NH(4)(+) availability significantly altered the distribution of fixed soil DIC among tissue types and increased the amount of fixed soil DIC in ectomycorrhizal roots by 130% compared with unfertilized seedlings. Increased NH(4)(+) availability did not increase fixation of soil DIC in nonmycorrhizal roots, suggesting that NH(4)(+) assimilation may be concentrated in ectomycorrhizal fungal tissues, reflecting greater anaplerotic demands. Soil DIC is likely to contribute only a small amount of C to forest trees, but it may be important in C fixation processes of specific tissues, such as newly formed stems and fine roots, and ectomycorrhizal roots assimilating NH(4)(+).     

Effect of ammonium on glutamine synthetase activity in ectomycorrhizal fungi, and in mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal Scots pine seedlings

The influence of ammonium on glutamine synthetase activity (GS, EC 6.3.1.2) was studied in three species of ectomycorrhizal fungi, Paxillus involutus (Batsch:Fr) Fr, Piloderma croceum Erikss. and Hjortst. and Suillus variegatus (Fr) O Kuntze growing in pure culture, as well as in the roots and needles of nursery-grown, non-mycorrhizal and mycorrhizal Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings inoculated with Paxillus involutus or Piloderma croceum as the symbiont. In response to increasing concentrations of ammonium in the nutrient solution, GS activity (expressed on a dry weight basis) increased slightly in Suillus variegatus but not in the other fungi. Glutamine synthetase activity increased in the roots and decreased in the needles of non-mycorrhizal seedlings as the ammonium concentration in the nutrient solution was increased from 0 to 1 mM, but no response was noted with further increases from 1 to 12 mM. Interspecies differences in GS activity were noted among the fungi growing in pure culture, but no significant interspecies differences were observed among the same fungi in the mycorrhizal state.     

Growth response of Pterocarpus santalinus seedlings to native microbial symbionts(arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and Rhizobium aegyptiacum ) under nursery conditions

The objective of this research was to improve the growth and biomass of Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.(an endangered leguminous tree) using native microbial symbionts such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and Rhizobium associated with native populations of P.santalinus.The native arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi isolated from P.santalinus soils were identified as(1) Glomus fasciculatum;(2)Glomus geosporum;and Glomus aggregatum.A nitrogenfixing microbial symbiont was isolated from the root nodules of P.santalinus and identified as Rhizobium aegyptiacum by16 s rRNA gene sequencing.These microbial symbionts were inoculated individually and in combination into P.santalinus seedling roots.After 90 days,growth and biomass had improved compared with uninoculated controls.Shoot and root lengths,number of leaves,stem circumference,number of root nodules,biomass,nutrient uptake and seedling quality index were significantly increased by a combined inoculation of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi+Rhizobium aegyptiacum.It was concluded that native microbial symbionts positively influenced P.santalinus seedling growth which will be helpful for successful field establishment.     

Foliar application of benzyladenine (BA) as a means to enhance shoot production for asexual propagation of young jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) seedlings

Foliar applications of benzyladenine (BA) wereinvestigated as a potential means forenhancing development of proliferated dwarfshoot (pds), which may serve as stem cuttingmaterial for asexual propagation of young jackpine seedlings. BA application in combinationwith pruning promoted pds production. Potential production of 30–40 shoots per BAtreated plant were obtained within 6 monthsfrom sowing of seed, compared to 14–17 forpruned controls (no BA application) in thesame time period. The BA treatment thatresulted in the highest number of pds variedwith the frequency of BA application. Higherconcentrations of BA generally resulted ingreater numbers of pds. Increasing BAconcentration and frequency of applicationreduced rooting capacity of cuttings as wellas lengths of pds. The optimal BA treatmentsfor both total pds production and high rootingwas found to be BA applied singly at 62.5 or125 mg/l or applied twice at 31.2 or62.5 mg/l. The potential utilization of BAtreatments in operational asexual propagationprocedures of jack pine is discussed.     

Occurrence of common phyllosphere fungi of horse-chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum) is unrelated to degree of damage by leafminer (Cameraria ohridella)

The horse chestnut leaf-miner (Cameraria ohridella Deschka & Dimi?, Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae) is an invasive pest causing extensive damage to leaves of the horse-chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum L.) in Europe. In Lithuania, C. ohridella invaded in 2002 causing wilting, browning and premature fall of A. hippocastanum leaves. The aim was to get a better understanding of possible linkages between foliar fungal communities and leaf-miner damage in A. hippocastanum. Leaves of A. hippocastanum, differentially damaged by C. ohridella, were collected in 10 sites in Lithuania. The fungal communities were described through DNA isolation and amplification using an ITS rRNA marker and Ion Torrent-sequencing. Clustering of 214,897 high-quality sequences resulted in 1017 non-singleton fungal taxa, among which Aureobasidium pullulans (28.2% of all fungal sequences), Endoconidioma populi (27.7%), Phoma fungicola (11.3%), Cladosporium ramotenellum (7.6%) and Cryptococcus sp. 2185_4 (5.0%) were most common. Correspondence analysis showed that fungal communities from heavily and slightly damaged leaves were largely intermingled, showing that in both types of samples fungal communities were similar. In conclusion, the study demonstrated that the phyllosphere of A. hippocastanum is inhabited by a high diversity of fungal species, the majority of which constitute generalist endophytes, epiphytes and saprotrophic fungi. The occurrence of common phyllosphere fungi was unrelated to the degree of damage by C. ohridella.     

Estimation of the biomass of fine roots and mycorrhizal fungi: a case study in a Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora) stand

As part of a study on soil carbon flow in forest ecosystems, the biomass of fine roots (2.0mm in diameter) and root-associated fungi, including ectomycorrhizal fungi, were estimated in the summer season in 1998 at a Pinus densiflora (Japanese red pine) stand in western Japan. Fine roots of pine were classified into three categories: class I roots (0.5–2.0mm in diameter), long class II roots (long roots with diameter 0.5mm; II_L), and short class II roots (short roots with diameter 0.5mm; II_S). Total biomass of fine roots (I + II_L + II_S) at this stand was estimated to be 91.0gm^–2, about 23% of which was class II roots (II_L + II_S). Ergosterol, which is a component of fungal membranes, was analyzed to estimate the biomass of root-associated fungi in roots. In the upper soil layers (from the surface to 13.4cm in depth), ergosterol contents in the class I, II_L and II_S roots were in the ranges 43.1–82.2, 126.1–196.3 and 271.2–321.0µgg^–1 root DW, respectively. The ergosterol content was converted to fungal biomass using the median (minimum–maximum) value of ergosterol concentration reported for ectomycorrhizal fungi. Root-associated fungal biomass in this stand was estimated to be 2.0 (0.5–9.6) gm^–2. The data suggest the biomass of ectomycorrhizal fungi in the P. densiflora stand is small compared with that in other forest ecosystems.     

Root system architecture and receptivity to mycorrhizal infection in seedlings of Cedrus atlantica as affected by nitrogen source and concentration

Effects of nitrogen (N) source and concentration on root system architecture and receptivity to mycorrhizal infection were studied in seedlings of Atlas cedar (Cedrus atlantica Manetti) grown in root observation boxes in a controlled-environment chamber. Nitrogen was supplied in a solution containing either NO3-; or NH4+ at a concentration of either 0.25 or 5.0 mM. Root extension was recorded twice weekly by tracing the roots growing in contact with the transparent face of the root observation box. Among treatments, lateral root production and branching density were greatest with 5.0 mM NO3-. Inoculation with mycelium of Tricholoma cedrorum Malencon was carried out 3 months after the start of the N treatments. The highest percentage of mycorrhizal roots, and the greatest amounts of living mycelium (estimated by the ergosterol assay) were observed in the NO3- treatments. Differences in root branching density among the N treatments were insufficient to explain the observed differences among treatments in the extent of mycorrhizal infection of seedlings.     

Exposure to a pine pathogen enhances growth and disease resistance in Pinus radiata seedlings

Most studies of Fusarium circinatum, the cause of pitch canker in pines, have focused on its activity as a pathogen. However, recent findings indicate that this fungus can colonize roots of Pinus radiata without inducing symptoms. Contrary to expectations, this study revealed that seedlings grown in infested sand grew more rapidly than seedlings not exposed to F. circinatum, based on root and shoot biomass, with modifications to root system architecture, including increased mycorrhizal root development. These effects were dependent on inoculum density and duration following growth in infested rooting medium. Plants exposed to F. circinatum expressed elevated resistance to stem infections, which significantly decreased the incidence of mortality; as above, effects were dependent on inoculum density. Resistance to stem infections was also enhanced in seedlings that emerged through infested litter, as occurs in native stands. Beneficial to neutral interactions of F. circinatum with its host suggest that the life history of this fungus may be more complex than previously recognized, with activities similar to non‐pathogenic endophytes. The potential for non‐lethal infections by F. circinatum to induce resistance in seedlings may influence dynamics of stand establishment. Overall, these results indicate that pathogenic organisms with asymptomatic states may have cryptic ecological functions that extend beyond the impacts of disease.     

Mechanical characterization of Pinus massoniana cell walls infected by blue-stain fungi using in situ nanoindentation

Characterizing the mechanical properties of wood cell walls will lead to better understanding and optimization of modifications made to wood infected by the blue-stain fungi.In this study,in situ nanoindentation was used to characterize the mechanical properties of the cell walls of Pinus massoniana infected by blue-stain fungi at the cellular level.The results show that in situ nanoindentation is an effective method for this purpose and that blue-stain fungi penetrate wood structures and degrade wood cell walls,significantly reducing the mechanical properties of the cell walls.The method can also be used to evaluate and improve the properties of other wood species infected by blue-stain fungi.