Use of the Rubber Elasticity Theory to Characterize the Viscoelastic Properties of Wheat Flour Doughs

The viscoelastic properties of durum wheat flour doughs were measured using the extensigraph in uniaxial extension and the Rheometrics mechanical spectrometer in oscillatory shear. The research examined the effect of increasing density of cross-links on rubber elasticity in these systems. The stress-strain behavior of durum wheat flour dough was not well simulated by Mooney-Rivlin type nonlinear elasticity. Addition of increasing amounts of iodate made the dough show appreciable strain thickening behavior, approximating the behavior of natural rubbers The estimated apparent molecular weight between cross-links ranged from 10,500 to 16,000, much larger than that of rubbers, for which values are in the range of 500–1,000. When the Mooney-Rivlin equation was tested, it appeared to approximate only moderately well the extensional behavior of iodate-added wheat flour doughs at finite but low extensions, where the finite extensibility of chains is not a factor. It is hypothesized that the cross-linked network is highly diluted with hydrogen and hydrophobic bonds that limit the applicability of rubberlike elasticity theories. Increasing the cross-linked density using iodic acid developed matrices that moved the behavior of durum flour doughs closer to Mooney-Rivlin behavior.     

Dynamic Viscoelastic Behavior of High-Pressure-Treated Wheat Gluten

The effects on the viscoelastic behavior of hydrated wheat gluten after treatment at different pressures (200–800 MPa), temperatures (20, 40, and 60°C), and holding times (20 and 50 min) were investigated by controlled stress rheometry. Because of the wide range of properties, four different torque amplitudes were used (0.5, 1.00, 3.00, and 6.00 mNm). Significant effects on rheological properties were observed, except when samples were analyzed at 0.5 mNm (limited heat and pressure treatments). Both storage modulus (G′) and loss modulus (G″) were more affected by temperature than pressure. The holding time had substantial effect on the slopes of both moduli at mild treatments; for the more severe treatments, the intercepts of the storage moduli in particular were extensively affected.     

Effects of Laccase and Ferulic Acid on Wheat Flour Doughs

The effects of a laccase from the fungus Pycnoporus cinnabarinus on the mixing of a wheat flour dough with or without added ferulic acid (FA) were studied. Laccase reduced dough time‐to‐peak and accelerated dough breakdown in comparison with the control. Its effect was enhanced with FA. The water extractability of arabinoxylans (AX) increased during mixing of a dough free of added laccase, especially with exogenous FA. At the same time, the extractability of FA decreased during mixing. Added FA may have competed with endogenous AX feruloyl esters, inhibiting partly oxidative gelation. Laccase decreased AX extractability by chain cross‐linking through oxidative dimerization of feruloyl esters. FA and, moreover, FA plus laccase, increased the oxidation of sulfhydryl (SH) groups. FA and, even more, FA in combination with laccase, increased the rate of protein depolymerization during mixing. FA and the products of FA laccase oxidation participated in a redox reaction involving SH groups. A coupling reaction involving enzymatically generated feruloyl radicals and thiol radicals generated through the mechanical breakdown of inter‐chain disulfide bonds might explain these results.     

Effect of Added Fat on the Rheological Properties of Wheat Flour Doughs

The effect of added fat content on the rheological properties of wheat flour doughs was determined for three different added fat contents (2.5, 5.0, and 7.5%) at 25°C using dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and stress relaxation (SR) tests. Frequency sweeps indicated that added fat had a plasticizing effect on G′ and G″ in the rubbery region. SR results were parameterized using a Maxwell model and a Williams-Watts (WW) model. The WW model indicated that each dough could be characterized by just two major relaxation modes, while four elements were needed for the Maxwell model. The average relaxation time for the shorter process was <1 sec and was not affected by added fat. However, the average relaxation time for the longer WW process actually increased from 107 to 261 sec with added fat up to 5%, and then decreased again. Taken together, these results suggest that added fat actually delayed the onset of viscous flow, while simultaneously attenuating the short-time elastic properties of the gluten fraction of the dough. Furthermore, rheological testing over a wide time (frequency) scale was needed to observe the effect of added fat on both the short-time elastic and longer-time viscous behavior of these doughs.     

Effect of Mixing Conditions on the Behavior of Lipoxygenase,Peroxidase, and Catalase in Wheat Flour Doughs

The effect of mixing has been tested on the extractable activities of lipoxygenase, peroxidase, and catalase from dough after 2, 5, and 20 min of mixing, and 30 min of rest period after 20 min of mixing. Different mixing conditions have been studied including temperature, atmosphere, speed, amount of water added to the dough, buffer solutions between pH 3.6 and 7.5 added to the dough, and different additives (linoleic acid, guaiacol, hydrogen peroxide, ascorbic acid, cysteine, yeast, and sodium chloride). In all the mixing conditions tested, the dough peroxidase activity remains equivalent to the initial flour activity, whereas losses in lipoxygenase and catalase activities largely varied according to mixing conditions. The results show that a self-destruction mechanism as well as physicochemical denaturation are responsible for these losses. Lipoxygenase losses seem mainly associated with the former mechanism, whereas catalase losses are highly increased in acidic conditions (physicochemical denaturation). Therefore, the relative impact of the three oxidoreducing enzymes may be largely modulated by mixing conditions.     

Rheological Properties of Soft Wheat Flour Doughs: Effect of Salt and Triglycerides

The small deformation rheological properties of wheat flour doughs in relation to their structure and hydration were studied by dynamic mechanical thermal analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, and electron spin resonance. The effect of salt and triglycerides was also examined and compared with results we obtained previously on starch dispersions. Moisture content was adjusted to 48 or 60% (w/w, wb). Samples contained 0–16% NaCl (g/100 g of flour‐water) and 0–18% triolein or lard (g/100 g of flour‐water). The obtained results suggested that starch has an active role in determining the evolution of dough rheological characteristics during heating. The main factors controlling rheological behavior during thermal treatment are the volume fraction and deformability of starch granules. Gluten changes the viscoelasticity of the continuous phase and competes with starch for water. The addition of sodium chloride to flour dispersions shifted the structural disorganization and rigidity increased during heating to higher temperatures. At >7% NaCl, the reverse effect was observed. The mechanism controlling the effect of salt on dough rheological behavior was explained in terms of effect on water properties and on starch structure and hydration. Triglycerides had a lubricant effect (i.e., lowering G′ modulus) on the wheat flour dough system. These effects are of great importance for production and quality of bakery products.     

Solubilization of Arabinoxylans from Isolated Water-Unextractable Pentosans and Wheat Flour Doughs by Cell-Wall-Degrading Enzymes

Water-unextractable pentosans (WUP) isolated from the flours of three wheat cultivars (Apollo, Soissons, Thésée) were treated with enzymes to solubilize the arabinoxylans. The water-unextractable arabinoxylans from the three cultivars had similar susceptibility to solubilization by enzymes: Grindamyl S 100 (GS100), a commercial preparation for baking, rich in pentosanase activities that originated from an Aspergillus niger culture; and three endoxylanases (E1, E2, E3), an arabinofuranosidase (Af), a β- glucanase (βG), and a ferulate esterase (FAE) purified from GS100. A cellulase (C) and a pure endoglucanase (eG) from Trichoderma reesei were also used. GS100 was able to solubilize high molecular weight arabinoxylans (HMWAX) from WUP that markedly enhance the viscosity of the reaction mixture supernatants. The endoxylanase E1 was responsible for this solubilizing activity of GS100, whereas E2 and E3 made only a very low contribution. Combining E1 with FAE led to a limited increase in the arabinoxylan-solubilizing effect. Also, enzymes hydrolyzing cellulose and β-glucans slightly improved the arabinoxylan solubilization from WUP when combined with GS100 or E1, but produced arabinoxylans of lower intrinsic viscosity. Similar effects of the enzymes were observed on arabinoxylan solubilization when applied to dough instead of isolated WUP.     

Effect of Oxidation on the Dynamic Rheological Properties of Wheat Flour-Water Doughs

Oxidation increased the strength of the dough. Addition of ascorbic acid or azodicabonamide (ADA) to dough increased both elastic modulus (G′) and viscous modulus (G″), while addition of cysteine decreased both values. Hydrogen peroxide, from either calcium peroxide or glucose oxidase, increased G′ and G″ and decreased tan δ (G″/G′) values. In addition to strengthening the dough, hydrogen peroxide dried the dough, but ADA did not. The absorption of doughs containing 20 GU of glucose oxidase (source of hydrogen peroxide) could be increased by ≈5% without altering the rheological properties. Presumably, the mobility of water in the gel formed by oxidative gelation decreased, thereby causing a drying of the dough.     

Physicochemical and Rheological Characterization of Wheat Flour Dough

Rheological and structural behavior of dough prepared with two Argentinean flours (FI and FII) of different dough extensibilities were studied. Flours were analyzed by composition and rheological assays. Structural properties of dough prepared at different mixing times were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy, free sulfhydryls quantification, and yield of different protein fractions, as well as their protein surface hydrophobicity. Size of high molecular weight glutelin soluble aggregates was analyzed through multistacking gel electrophoresis. Dynamic viscoelasticity of dough was also studied. Flours FI and FII presented similar physicochemical properties but different rheological properties. Structural properties of both flour components were different. Starch from FI flour generated a more viscous paste than that of FII. FI presented a higher glutenin‐to‐gliadin ratio and a higher content of free sulfhydryls than FII. The resulting dough of FI showed a high development time and was more stable than FII. FI contained a high proportion of soluble HMW glutenins and formed dough with a more depolymerized insoluble protein residue containing a lower amount of gliadin in its matrix than FII. FI also formed a more elastic and stable dough with higher development time than FII. The specific structural characteristic of FI turns this flour into suitable raw material for the preparation of different bakery products in which elasticity of dough would be an important functional property.     

Creep‐Recovery of Wheat Flour Doughs and Relationship to Other Physical Dough Tests and Breadmaking Performance

Measurements of creep‐recovery of flour‐water doughs were made using a dynamic mechanical analyzer (DMA) in a compression mode with an applied probe force of 50 mN. A series of wheat flour and blend samples with various breadmaking potentials were tested at a fixed water absorption of 54% and farinograph optimum water absorption, respectively. The flour‐water doughs exhibited a typical creep‐recovery behavior of a noncross‐linked viscoelastic material varying in some parameters with flour properties. The maximum recovery strain of doughs with a fixed water absorption of 54% was highly correlated (r = 0.939) to bread loaf volume. Wheat flours with a large bread volume exhibited greater dough recovery strain. However, there was no correlation (r = 0.122) between maximum creep strain and baking volume. The maximum recovery strain of flour‐water doughs also was correlated to some of the parameters provided by mixograph, farinograph, and TA‐XT2 extension.     

公路边坡不同护坡措施表层土壤水分动态变化规律

为了确定公路边坡不同护坡措施保水效果,以沈抚高速沿线的草皮防护（CP）、挂网喷播（GW）、六角空心砖防护（LJ）和菱形防护（LX）四种典型边坡防护措施为研究对象,利用土壤水分测量仪观测不同护坡措施的表层土壤含水量,分析不同护坡措施下土壤含水量的时空演变特征。结果表明:不同护坡措施土壤含水量均表现为坡下 > 坡中 > 坡上;土壤含水量均值在13日,14日均表现为CP > GW > LJ > LX,而在15日,16日均表现为CP > LJ > GW > LX;在同种护坡措施下,土壤含水量变异程度在各坡位均表现为随时间变化呈逐渐增大的规律;在同一坡面情况下,六角空心砖防护坡面表层土壤水分变异系数（CV）表现为坡上 > 坡下 > 坡中,其余三种护坡措施CV均表现为坡上 > 坡中 > 坡下;护坡措施土壤含水量变异程度随时间变化表现为LX（12.5%） > GW（10.6%） > CP（9.2%） > LJ（8.5%）,菱形植草与其余三种措施间差异显著（p < 0.05）,挂网植草与六角空心砖防护差异显著（p < 0.05）,草皮防护与这两种措施均未达到显著水平;六角空心砖配合紫穗槐灌木和小火炬草本植被的护坡形式保水效果较好。     

Effects of Transglutaminase Enzyme on Fundamental Rheological Properties of Sound and Bug‐Damaged Wheat Flour Doughs

Transglutaminase (TG) catalyzes the formation of nondisulfide covalent crosslinks between peptide‐bound glutaminyl residues and ∊‐amino groups of lysine residues in proteins. Crosslinks among wheat gluten proteins by TG are of particular interest because of their high glutamine content. Depolymerization of wheat gluten proteins by proteolytic enzymes associated with bug damage causes rapid deterioration of dough properties and bread quality. The aim of the present study was to investigate the possibility of using TG to regain gluten strength adversely affected by wheat bug proteases. A heavily bug‐damaged (Eurygaster spp.) wheat flour was blended with sound cv. Augusta or cv. Sharpshooter flours. Dynamic rheological measurements, involving a frequency sweep at a fixed shear stress, were performed after 0, 30, and 60 min of incubation on doughs made from sound or blended flour samples. The complex moduli (G* values) of Augusta and Sharpshooter doughs blended with 10% bug‐damaged flour decreased significantly after 30 min of incubation. These dough samples were extremely soft and sticky and impossible to handle for testing purposes after 60 min of incubation. To test the possibility of using TG to counteract the hydrolyzing effect of bug proteases on gluten proteins, TG was added to the flour blends. The G* values of TG‐treated sound Augusta or Sharpshooter doughs increased significantly after 60 min of incubation. The G* values of the Augusta or Sharpshooter doughs blended with bug‐damaged flour increased significantly rather than decreased after 30 and 60 min of incubation when TG was included in the dough formulation. This indicates that the TG enzyme substantially rebuilds structure of dough hydrolyzed by wheat bug protease enzymes.     

Effects of Microencapsulated High‐Fat Powders on the Empirical and Fundamental Rheological Properties of Wheat Flour Doughs

Microencapsulated high‐fat powders are a healthy and convenient alternative to fats normally used in cereal‐based products. In powder form they are easier to use than block fat. Microencapsulation involves dispersion of the fat using homogenization. The globules are then fixed by spray‐drying. Empirical and fundamental rheological tests were conducted on doughs containing commercial vegetable fat and four microencapsulated high‐fat powders. The doughs were compared with a standard dough containing no fat. The powders contained 70% vegetable fat or milk fat. The encapsulating agent used was either sodium caseinate or whey protein concentrate (5–10%). Sucrose or lactose were also present in the powders (20–25%). The powders were manufactured at low‐ or high‐pressure homogenization. Farinograph and extensigraph tests were performed on all doughs. Dynamic oscillation tests were conducted in the linear visco‐elastic region of the dough. Addition of fat and microencapsulated high‐fat powders produced using low‐pressure homogenization reduced the complex modulus of the doughs. The results showed an increase in phase angle with incorporation of commercial fat and the microencapsulated high‐fat powders. Scanning electron microscopy was conducted to examine the effects of the additives on dough structure. This study demonstrated that microencapsulated high‐fat powders, especially powders produced using low‐pressure homogenization, had some beneficial effects on dough rheology when compared with doughs produced with commercial fat.     

Time-Resolved Shear Viscosity of Wheat Flour Doughs—Effect of Mixing,Shear Rate,and Resting on the Viscosity of Doughs of Different Flours

The shear viscosity of three doughs of different wheat cultivars mixed to a farinograph level of 500 BU was measured at low shear rates as a function of the shear deformation using a cone-and-plate viscometer. Cyanoacrylate adhesive was used to attach the dough samples to the instrument surfaces to eliminate wall slip. Flours used were Dragon, Kosack, and a fodder wheat. A distinct difference was observed between the viscosities of the different flour cultivars. The strongest dough (Dragon), with the highest protein content and a good resistance in the farinograph, had the highest maximum viscosity. The doughs showed distinct strain hardening, more pronounced for the strong doughs. Maximum viscosity was obtained at a strain of ≈4, almost independent of the shear rate, but at higher values for stronger doughs (5 for Dragon, 4 for Kosack, and 3.5 for fodder wheat). The maximum was most pronounced for well-mixed doughs after resting. The viscosity and its variation with strain may be used as a measure of quality; a higher viscosity and a maximum occurring at high strains indicating good quality (related to the farinogram). The viscosity gradually decreased at higher strains. Apparent viscosity increases with strain and reaches a maximum value at a common strain, which suggests the presence of entangled molecules. The increase of maximum viscosity with increase in mixing also supports this theory. Resting the dough increases the maximum viscosity, which suggests the formation of new cross-links in the nonequilibrium entangled network during resting.     

Effect of Physical State of Nonpolar Lipids on Rheology and Microstructure of Gluten‐Starch and Wheat Flour Doughs

To clarify the effects of solid fat and liquid oil on dough in more detail in a simpler system, gluten‐starch doughs with different gluten contents were investigated. The results from rheological measurements indicate that dough with a higher starch content has less resistance to strain and dough with a lower starch content has a rubber‐like structure. The effects of the physical state of nonpolar lipids such as fat and oil on gluten‐starch doughs and wheat flour doughs were investigated using rheological measurements and scanning electron microscopy. Fat‐containing dough had more gas cells and a very smooth gluten gel surface with few holes, which may provide higher tolerance to strain. Moreover, the fat seemed to uniformly distribute the gluten gel between the starch granules in the dough, which reduced the friction between starch granules and led to a lower storage modulus. A mechanism governing the effect of fats on loaf volume is proposed based on the phenomena observed in the fat‐containing dough.     

南京地区小麦不同生育期土壤湿度适宜范围的确定

在小麦的主要生育期进行了不同土壤湿度和不同持续时间的水分胁迫,研究了土壤湿度对小麦产量及产量形成的影响。结果表明:小麦经济产量、叶面积和单株干重与土壤湿度之间存在极显著的二次函数关系;小麦对水分胁迫最敏感的生育期为拔节-开花期;而且不同生育期的适宜土壤湿度范围不同,并据此确定出南京地区小麦不同生育期适宜的土壤湿度范围。其结果对定量评估不同生育期土壤水分胁迫对产量的影响程度和小麦生产中合理控制土壤湿度范围有一定参考价值。     

Effect of Different Wheat Classes and Their Flour Milling Streams on Textural Properties of Flour Tortillas

Wheat flour tortillas were made from flour streams of three wheat cultivars: Jagger hard red winter wheat, 4AT-9900 hard white winter wheat, and Ernie soft red winter wheat. Wheat samples were milled on a Miag experimental mill. Twelve flour streams and one straight-grade flour were obtained. Tortillas were made from each flour stream and the straightgrade flour by the hot-press method. Tortilla stretchability and foldability were evaluated by a texture analyzer and six panelists, respectively. Flour protein and water absorption affected tortilla texture. The foldability evaluated by panelists was positively correlated with flour protein content, farinograph water absorption, and damaged starch (P < 0.05). The 2BK and 3BK streams of hard wheat produced tortillas with strong stretchability and good foldability. Middling streams of hard wheat yielded tortillas with lighter color and less stretchability. Under the conditions tested in this study, soft wheat flours were not good for producing flour tortillas.     

Effects of Extraction Rates of Wheat Flour on Phyllo (Yufka) Properties at Different Storage Temperatures

Phyllo sheets were produced with flour obtained at different extraction rates (53, 58, or 67%), and stored at 4 and 25°C. Physical, chemical, and sensory properties of fresh and stored phyllo were researched. Fresh phyllo samples from wheat flour at 53% extraction rate were thinner (0.4 mm) and had whiter color (L* = 87.6). Textural properties and overall sensory acceptability of phyllo samples significantly decreased (P ≤ 0.01) with increased extraction rates and storage times. At the end of four days, toughness and extensibility decreased from 0.88 N and 10.9 mm to 0.65 N and 6.7 mm at 4°C and to 0.45 N and 5.6 mm at 25°C. The 53% extraction rate was more suitable for producing phyllo. The shelf life of phyllo samples for preparing borek was determined four days at 4°C and two days at 25°C according to acid contents and sensory properties.     

Dynamic and Elongation Rheology of Yeasted Bread Doughs

The rheology of yeasted bread doughs is a little‐studied field despite yeast's importance in developing bread structure. A method of thermally inactivating the yeast within mixed bread doughs was developed to overcome the difficulty of yeast fermenting during rheological measurements. Sample stabilization by preshearing of dough samples at a stress amplitude of 1 Pa at 1 Hz for 10 sec improved the reliability of small amplitude oscillatory shear measurements, and resting 20 min within the rheometer was sufficient to produce reliable and consistent observations. Small amplitude oscillatory shear measurements were unable to detect any differences between yeasted and nonyeasted doughs nor any changes in linear viscoelastic properties due to fermentation. However, large strain uniaxial elongation measurements of yeasted doughs revealed a significant progressive decrease in elongational viscosities with fermentation. Size‐exclusion HPLC analysis of yeasted doughs showed an increase in unextractable polymeric dough proteins, which were interpreted as evidence of cross‐linking and therefore a potential improvement in dough properties. The apparent contradictions between uniaxial elongation and SE‐HPLC studies of fermenting yeasted doughs can be attributed to gas bubbles within the dough interrupting the increasingly cross‐linked protein network, resulting in the rheological weakness observed for fermenting yeasted doughs.     

不同倍性小麦材料对水分和密度条件的响应

以栽培一粒(2n)、栽培二粒(4n)和长武134(6n)为材料在大型活动防雨棚条件下研究不同倍性小麦材料在不同密度和水分条件下的产量适应性变化.结果发现,在两种水分条件下随着染色体倍性从2n→6n的增加,产量、千粒重、水分利用效率(WUE)和收获指数均呈增加趋势,在水分胁迫下各材料穗粒数和穗数则呈降低趋势,而在正常供水下穗粒数则呈增加趋势.在水分胁迫下栽培一粒、栽培二粒和长武134最高产量分别出现在中、低、高密度群体,而同一材料不同密度群体间变异系数分别为6.73%,1.98%,9.07%;不同倍性材料千粒重均随着密度增加而减小,而穗数则逐渐增加,二倍体的穗粒数以中密度最高,四倍体的穗粒数随着群体密度的增加而减小,六倍体则相反;三种材料WUE和收获指数分别以低、高、低密度最高.正常供水下随着染色体倍性从2n→6n的增加,三个倍性材料最高产量分别出现在高、低、低密度群体,而同一材料不同密度群体间变异系数分别为6.01%,17.12%,2.46%;千粒重表现为中密度>低密度>高密度,而穗粒数均以低密度群体最高,二倍体和四倍体以高密度群体最低,六倍体则以中密度群体最低,穗数则随着密度群体增加而增加;二倍体WUE以高密度群体最大,中密度最小,四倍体和六倍体随着群体密度的增加而逐渐减小,二倍体收获指数以低密度最高,中密度最低,四倍体和六倍体表现为低密度>中密度>高密度.上述研究结果为干旱半干旱地区小麦节水高产栽培和育种提供了理论依据.