Streuobst: a traditional agroforestry system as a model for agroforestry development in temperate Europe

The development of agroforestry for industrialised countries can be furthered by an understanding of the history and present functioning of traditional systems. In temperate Europe, fruit trees were traditionally grown on agricultural land undersown with crops or managed grassland (Streuobst). The historical evolution of this agroforestry system has been driven by the interaction of technical progress, market development and intervention by public authorities. Streuobst reached its peak in the 1930s, but has since been in continuous decline due to the development of intensively managed dwarf-tree orchards. However, even today, it still occupies approximately one million hectares in 11European countries and has a strong impact on the European fruit market. The profitability of streuobst is relatively poor due to its low labour productivity, but it has advantageous ecological and socio-cultural features, particularly in terms of biological diversity and landscape aesthetics. Accordingly, it finds strong acceptance among the general public, such that subsidised eradication programs have been abandoned and, in a number of countries, streuobst is now supported by non-governmental organisations and by state conservation policies. Modern agroforestry in temperate, industrialised countries should be oriented towards the creation of similar ecological and socio-cultural benefits in order to receive public support as a land-use system. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Traditional farming systems of south-central Chile,with special emphasis on agroforestry

The paper describes some general structural and functional characteristics of actual Chilean farming systems managed by small farmers (campesinos) with traditional technologies. Campesino farming systems can be divided into two major groups: (a) small-scale (no more than 1 ha) intensive systems with a wide array of tree annual crops and 3–4 animal species per farm; and (b) extensive semi-commercial systems (5–12 ha) composed of diversified combinations of crops and animals designed to increase production, producing a marketable surplus for the local community. In most systems campesinos include trees (whether for food, fodder, wood, construction materials, fuel, etc.) as integrated elements of farm management constituting agro-forestry systems. Understanding these traditional farming systems, and the rationales behind their management is an important first step towards the ultimate development of appropriate agricultural technologies attuned to the ecological and socio-economic circumstances of the Chilean campesinos.     

Agroforestry research for development in India: 25 years of experiences of a national program

Agroforestry Systems - India has been in the forefront of agroforestry research ever since organized research in agroforestry started worldwide about 25 years ago. Considering the country's...     

Soil quality characteristics of traditional agroforestry systems in Mouzaki area,central Greece

Agroforestry Systems - Agroforestry systems (AFS) are characterized by growing trees and crops on the same area, aiming at sustainable production and better natural resources management, whilst...     

The farming system and traditional agroforestry systems in the Maya community of San Jose, Belize

Shifting slash-and-burn agriculture is likely one of the main causes of forest degradation in southern Belize. Although many development projects have attempted to reduce the impacts of agriculture on the tropical rainforest, the situation is still a cause for concern. A study of the farming system of the San Jose Maya community was therefore carried out to examine agricultural production in its social, cultural, economic, and political context. Results demonstrate that agricultural production contributes to forest degradation because of the limited availability of agricultural land, the low level of investment in agricultural production, the land tenure system, limited marketing opportunities, and the exclusion of Mayas from the country's political and economic domains. Agroforestry could, however, offer a partial solution to the problem of forest degradation. Three types of traditional agroforestry systems are practised in San Jose: the milpa (a slash-and-burn agriculture system), cacao (Theobroma cacao) cultivation under shade trees, and the homegarden. These traditional agroforestry systems almost entirely meet a family's needs for food and wood, and generate at least 62% of family income. Improving the productivity of these systems could help to reduce pressure on the forest in southern Belize.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Agroforestry systems in China: a survey and classification

We classified agroforestry systems in China by system type and system unit. A system type is defined as a homogenous group whose major components are closely related economically, socially, and environmentally. A system unit is defined as a basic functional unit that reveals the specific biological relationships among the major components and requires similar management strategies and techniques. Seven system types and 26 system units are recognized in China. Among them, agrosilvofishery, silvomedicinal and agrosilvomedicinal systems have values unique to Chinese. Each system type is discussed in the context of its geographical extent in China, main species components, and system units.     

Land degradation in Mediterranean Europe: can agroforestry be a part of the solution? A prospective review

Vegetation and land degradation, although less acute than in the Southern Mediterranean Basin, is still widespread in the North. Degradation results from various kinds of mismanagement of the land. Wildfires, for instance, favoured by ungrazing, play an increasingly important role as the mean area annually burnt shifted from an average 200,000 ha in the 1960's to over 600,000 ha in the 1980's. These put a heavy burden on the states and on local communities that amounted to an annual average one billion ECUs (USS 1.2 billion) in the 1980's. The causes and processes of land and vegetation degradation are analysed in the light of the changes in land-use over the past 25 years, as shown in the official statistical data. Forest and shrubland areas are expanding while farmland is shrinking by nearly 1% per annum. An analysis of the foreseeable situation in the early years of the twenty-first century is attempted on the basis of the likely evolution of the EEC agricultural policy. Some guidelines are proposed for sound ecological management of the Northern Mediterranean land and vegetation. These include the introduction or expansion of agroforestry systems with multiple-use of the land to develop tourism, wildlife, hunting and sports, combined with extensive grazing of livestock and game and timber production from elite clones of selected high yielding or highly valued species.Eight to ten million hectares, at present devoted to cereal cropping (i.e. about 50% of the cereal-cropping hectarage), will have to be reconverted to other activities. By 1995, the EEC cereal prices will have to drop in line with the world market, as a result of the recent evolution of the EEC Communal Agricultural Policy (CAP). The warranted EEC cereal prices are at present about 40% above that of the world market. The reconversion of this cereal land to other activities could combine low-input mixed agroforestry systems with extensive livestock and game husbandry, high value timber, tourism and various amenities. These should include forage-shrubs plantations in a strategy which combines inexpensive, albeit nutritionally balanced, ruminant diets with erosion control and the overall uplift of natural land fertility and productivity.     

Carbon sequestration of modern Quercus suber L. silvoarable agroforestry systems in Portugal: a YieldSAFE-based estimation

Modern alley cropping designs, with trees aligned in rows and adapted to operating farming machinery, have been suggested for Europe. This paper explores the potential for adoption of cork oak (Quercus suber L.) agroforestry in Portugal and estimates the potential carbon sequestration. Spatial modeling and Portuguese datasets were used to estimate target areas where cork oak could grow on farmland. Different implementation scenarios were then modeled for this area assuming a modern silvoarable agroforestry system (113 trees ha^?1 thinned at year 20 for establishing 50 trees ha^?1). The YieldSAFE process-based model was used to predict the biomass and carbon yield of cork oak under low and high soil water holding capacity levels. Approximately 353,000 ha are available in Portugal for new cork oak alley cropping. Assuming implementation rates between 10 % of the area with low soil water capacity (60 mm: 15 cm depth, coarse texture) and 70 % of the area with high soil water holding capacity (1,228 mm: 200 cm depth, very fine texture), then carbon sequestration could be 5 × 10⁶ and 123 × 10⁶ Mg CO₂ respectively. Due to higher yields on more productive land, scenarios of limited implementation in high productivity locations can sequester similar amounts of carbon as wide implementation on low productivity land, suggesting that a priori land classification assessments can improve the targeting of land and financial incentives for carbon sequestration.     

Design and development of agroforestry systems for Illinois,USA: silvicultural and economic considerations

Recommended managerial inputs and associated outputs expected from practicing agroforestry on marginal farm lands in the central USA are discussed. Modeled management combinations are based on five timber species, three sites indices, three timber growth rates, five agricultural crops, all common crop rotations, and three tillage systems. Black walnut (Juglans nigra L.), combined with row crop production, is used to illustrate a specific multicropping alternative. Based on net present value, modeled agroforestry systems incorporating black walnut performed better on the better sites and at the medium to high timber growth rates whereas management systems using red oak (Quercus rubra L.) with row crops performed better on the poorer sites and at the lower growth rates. For agroforestry to be competitive with traditional agriculture, medium to high timber growth rates were necessary. Also, lower interest rates and the existing U.S. income tax structure favored agroforestry versus traditional agriculture. Substantial increases in net income may be possible through incorporating other income producing activities such as nut production within the agroforestry system.     

Adoption of agroforestry practices: a case study from Andhra Pradesh,India

This study analyzes factors influencing the adoption of agroforestry practices using logit analysis. In particular, the proposition that agroforestry practices have not been adopted by poor households is tested using data from West Godavari in the province of Andhra Pradesh, India. Innovation-decision process was used to guide the selection of variables used in the analysis. The results support the criticism that higher income farmers are the main beneficiaries of agroforestry if only farm forestry is considered. The results, however, do not support the criticism in the case of adoption of home gardens.     

Soil biological properties under different tree based traditional agroforestry systems in a semi-arid region of Rajasthan,India

An investigation was carried out in an Entisol at farmers’ field in Jaipur district, Rajasthan, India during 2002–2004 to evaluate the effect of traditionally grown trees on soil biological characteristics. Traditionally grown trees in farm lands for study consisted of Prosopis cineraria (L.), Dalbergia sissoo (Roxb.) ex DC, Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) and Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. having a canopy diameter of 8 m. Results revealed significant and substantial improvement in soil biological activity in terms of microbial biomass C, N and P, dehydrogenase and alkaline phosphatase activity under different tree based agroforestry systems as compared to a no tree control (cropping alone). Soil microbial biomass C, N and P under agroforestry varied between 262–320, 32.1–42.4 and 11.6–15.6 μg g⁻¹ soil, respectively, with corresponding microbial biomass C, N and P of 186, 23.2 and 8.4 μg g⁻¹ soil under a no tree control. Fluxes of C, N and P through microbial biomass were also significantly higher in P. cineraria based land use system followed by D. sissoo, A. leucophloea and Acacia nilotica in comparison to a no tree control. Thus, it is concluded that agroforestry system at farmers’ field enhance soil biological activity and amongst trees, P. cineraria based system brought maximum and significant improvement in soil biological activity.     

Landowner perceptions and the adoption of agroforestry practices in southern Ontario,Canada

A mail-out survey questionnaire was developed by the Agroforestry group at the University of Guelph to determine the level of awareness and interest in the adoption of agroforestry systems by landusers from four townships in Wellington County, Ontario. The questionnaire investigated: (1) the current level of knowledge regarding windbreaks, woodlots and plantations, intereropping, riparian plantations and silvipasture, (2) the present level of participation in each of these systems on-farm, (3) the perceived benefits and/or drawbacks of each of these initiatives with respect to total farm income, income diversity, land rehabilitation, land value/equity, soil/water conservation, labour intensity, overhead and return on the term of investment.The majority of respondents were familiar with conventional agroforestry systems such as windbreaks and woodlots/plantations (80%, 62% respectively), therefore the level of interest in the adoption of these practices was significant (74%, 66% respectively). Response rates were lower for silvipasture, riparian plantations and intercropping, most likely as result of the low level of familiarity with these practices (20%, 32%, 4% respectively). Respondents commented that agroforestry systems would have a neutral effect on farm income, and would increase land stewardship. In some cases, interested landusers indicated a willingness to participate in agroforestry systems even though they anticipated increases in overhead and labour intensity; however, this was only true if they held land stewardship as a priority. Landusers were more concerned with the economic aspects of agroforestry, as a determinant to the future adoptability of particular practices. Age, gender, farm operation and farm size were not correlated with the adoption of agroforestry systems.The success of agroforestry programs on farms in the study area is largely dependent on the attitudes and willingness of landusers to participate in non-traditional agricultural systems.     

Agroforestry and land-use change in industrialized nations: a case study from northeastern Germany

The paper describes the changes in agricultural structure and land use in northeastern Germany that were triggered by reunification. It projects possible effects of the recent EU-agricultural policy reform with the help of a simulation model. It is concluded that a considerable part of land (especially permanent grassland) might not have a productive use in the mediumrun. Agroforestry systems relevant for Central Europe are discussed and problems identified. Agroforestry systems are evaluated as one land-use option among others (afforestation, natural succession, new agricultural systems) and their possible impact is assessed.     

Structure and function of traditional agroforestry systems in the western Himalaya. II. Nutrient cycling

Budget of nutrient in plant and soil, and their rates of recycling in three types of traditional agroforestry systems in mid elevations of the western Himalaya were studied. Concentration of nitrogen and potassium was significantly higher in fruits and leaves than in branches, boles, and litter. Grewia optiva, an important fodder tree, was found to be rich in potassium, vegetable crops in nitrogen, and weeds in phosphorus. Maximum store of nutrients was estimated in aboveground biomass of agrihortisilvicultural system: nitrogen 532, phosphorus 40, potassium 461, calcium 400, and magnesium 298 kg/ha; it was closely followed by that in agrihorticultural system, and both these had sbout 2-fold higher nutrient stock as compared to agrisilvicultural system. In the case of the former two systems, considerable quantity of nutrients up to nitrogen 169, phosphorus 14, potassium 165, calcium 97, and magnesium 65 kg/ha, for example in agrihortisilvicultural system, was recycled through debris of crops and weeds, and tree leaf litter, while the recycling rate was almost half in agrisilvicultural system. Through ‘harvest’ potassium was depleted in the largest quantity from the system, followed by nitrogen, magnesium, calcium, and phosphorus; much higher loss occurred through agricultural and/or horticultural edible parts as compared to fuel and fodder biomass. For example, the loss through agricultural crops and horticultural fruits for nitrogen in agrihortisilvicultural system was up to 75 percent and 38 percent respectively of the total annual uptake. This heavy loss makes the system unstable from a nutrient point of view particularly for nitrogen and potassium until external inputs are added through organic and inorganic fertilizers. Agrihortisilvicultural system is remarkably efficient in view of biomass productivity for fuel, fodder and fruits, and also from nutrient point of view provided losses through harvest are compensated externally.     

Agroforestry systems of high nature and cultural value in Europe: provision of commercial goods and other ecosystem services

Land use systems that integrate woody vegetation with livestock and/or crops and are recognised for their biodiversity and cultural importance can be termed high nature and cultural value (HNCV) agroforestry. In this review, based on the literature and stakeholder knowledge, we describe the structure, components and management practices of ten contrasting HNCV agroforestry systems distributed across five European bioclimatic regions. We also compile and categorize the ecosystem services provided by these agroforestry systems, following the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services. HNCV agroforestry in Europe generally enhances biodiversity and regulating ecosystem services relative to conventional agriculture and forestry. These systems can reduce fire risk, compared to conventional forestry, and can increase carbon sequestration, moderate the microclimate, and reduce soil erosion and nutrient leaching compared to conventional agriculture. However, some of the evidence is location specific and a better geographical coverage is needed to generalize patterns at broader scales. Although some traditional practices and products have been abandoned, many of the studied systems continue to provide multiple woody and non-woody plant products and high-quality food from livestock and game. Some of the cultural value of these systems can also be captured through tourism and local events. However there remains a continual challenge for farmers, landowners and society to fully translate the positive social and environmental impacts of HNCV agroforestry into market prices for the products and services.     

An evaluation of agroforestry systems as a rural development option for the Brazilian Amazon

In the Brazilian Amazon mass deforestation has resulted from a sequenceof road building, extractive logging, and pasture development during the pastthree decades. Ranchers have consolidated small agricultural holdings, pushingfarmers to move to forest frontiers or urban fringes, prompting furtherdeforestation and social instability. In response to this conversion ofAmazonian forests, the authors sought to identify both economically viable andmore sustainable development alternatives within the Brazilian state ofPará. There, local farmers of Japanese descent have developed a varietyof agroforestry systems in which 10 to 20 hectare (ha) fields yieldincomes comparable to 400 to 1,200 ha pastures. In addition, suchcrop fields generate substantially more rural employment per hathan do pastures. Ongoing forest conversion to pasture is clearly not a productof sound economic decision making. Improved land zoning and public policiescould favor agroforestry over further pasture expansion, stabilizing ruralpopulations while helping to conserve the Amazon's remaining forests. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.