Influence of storage conditions on chemical composition and sensory properties of citrus honey

Fresh citrus honey was stored at 10, 20, and 40 degrees C for 12 months. The effect of storage on the quality of honey was evaluated using physicochemical parameters, volatile compounds, mono-, di-, and trisaccharides, and sensory analysis. Diastase activity and HMF were out of the legal limit in honey stored 12 months at 40 degrees C. Volatile compounds (especially terpenes and terpene derivatives), monosaccharides, and disaccharides presented important losses during honey storage at any temperature. Honey storage at 10 or 20 degrees C maintained their floral, fresh, citric, and fresh fruit aroma, while the intensities of these attributes were diminished. Storage at 40 degrees C during 12 months resulted in the appearance of attributes such as "medicinal, smoked, toasted, cooked vegetable, and ripened fruit", associated with compounds formed during the Maillard reaction or through degradation of sugars such as volatile pyrroles, furanones, pyranones, and pyrazines, which appeared or increased in concentration during honey storage mainly at high temperature.     

竹豆间种对柑橘园土壤化学性质及微生物碳源代谢特征的影响

选择红壤丘陵区典型柑橘园,设置清耕、自然生草和竹豆间种3 种种植模式,研究不同种植模式下柑橘园土壤化学性质、微生物生物量、微生物碳源代谢特征变化,并探明主导碳源代谢特征变化的土壤环境因素。结果表明,相对于清耕和自然生草种植模式,竹豆间种模式下柑橘园土壤pH 提高了24.03% 和21.65%,有机碳、碱解氮、有效磷、速效钾分别提高了19.40% 和25.14%、14.02% 和18.61%、2.69 和3.12 倍、63.40% 和1.14 倍。柑橘园土壤微生物生物量碳受种植模式影响不显著,但是竹豆间种显著提高了土壤微生物碳源利用能力(Average well colordevelopment,AWCD)和均匀度指数。竹豆间种模式下土壤微生物对于酰胺、氨基酸、酚类和多聚物等多个大类碳源的代谢强度显著高于其他处理,清耕模式下土壤微生物对于糖类尤其是赤藓糖醇、葡萄糖-1- 磷酸、D- 纤维二糖的代谢强度显著高于其他处理。逐步回归分析结果表明,微生物的碳源利用能力和土壤有机碳密切相关,而pH是影响微生物功能多样性及多个特异性碳源代谢强度的首要因素。冗余分析结果表明,柑橘园土壤微生物碳源利用模式受土壤环境因素影响的大小顺序为:pH> 有效磷> 碱解氮> 有机碳> 速效钾。因此,竹豆间种能够缓解柑橘园土壤酸化,提高土壤养分含量,改善微生物群落结构和功能多样性,有利于柑橘园土壤生态健康和可持续利用。     

毛叶苕子替代化学氮肥对幼龄柑橘氮素营养的贡献

研究毛叶苕子(Vicia villosa Roth)替代化学氮肥对幼龄柑橘不同部位生物量、氮素吸收量的影响,定量其对幼龄柑橘氮素营养的贡献率,旨在为柑橘园绿肥利用及其替代化肥方案提供科学理论支撑。以盆栽柑橘幼苗为研究对象,采用15N 同位素标记的毛叶苕子进行化学氮肥替代,设置5 个绿肥替代比例处理:0%(100%CF)、25%(25%GM+75%CF)、50%(50%GM+50%CF)、75%(75%GM+25%CF)、100%(100%GM), 每个处理4 次重复。在温室中培养6 个月后测定柑橘总生物量,根、茎、叶各器官生物量,氮含量以及15N 丰度。结果表明,绿肥替代化学氮肥能显著提高柑橘各器官生物量和氮吸收量,且随着替代比例的升高,各器官生物量呈先显著上升后稳定的趋势;柑橘总生物量在绿肥替代化学氮肥75% 时最高,较对照提高了107.5%;柑橘总氮吸收量在绿肥替代化学氮肥100% 时最高,较对照提高了45.1%。绿肥对柑橘各器官氮素营养的贡献随着替代化学氮肥比例的提高而增加,在75%GM+25%CF 和100%GM 处理中,柑橘根、茎和叶的氮素来自绿肥的比率分别为36.56% ～ 50.00%、35.03% ～ 46.81% 和34.52% ～ 50.72%,而在25%GM+75%CF 和50%GM+50%CF 处理中,绿肥对柑橘根、茎和叶的氮素贡献率仅分别有8.96% ～ 20.77%、9.41% ～ 19.77% 和7.82% ～ 20.94%;同时,随着绿肥替代化学氮肥比例的增加,氮素向柑橘根的分配增加,而向茎与叶的分配减少。在柑橘园管理中,进行绿肥栽培、利用可有效地替代化学氮肥,减少化肥的投入,增加柑橘的氮素营养。     

土壤改良剂和套种作物对幼龄橘园酸性土壤理化性质的影响

为明确施用酸性土壤改良剂配合套种对幼龄橘园土壤理化性质及养分含量的影响,选取了生石灰、生石灰+火土灰为酸性土壤改良剂,绿豆和红薯为套种作物,以土壤清耕为对照,系统研究了不同酸性土壤改良剂和套种作物组合对土壤理化性质、全量和速效养分含量以及活性铝含量的影响。结果表明,较土壤清耕处理,各施用土壤改良剂配合套种处理均能显著降低土壤容重、增大土壤孔隙度、提高土壤饱和持水量和田间持水量,显著提高土壤pH值和有机质含量且降低活性铝含量(P<0.05),能不同程度提高土壤全量和速效养分。较施用生石灰处理,长期施用生石灰+火土灰累加效应明显,在改善土壤物理特性、提高土壤pH值和有机质含量、降低活性铝含量、提高土壤全钾、速效钾和有效磷含量等方面效果更好。套种绿豆和套种红薯在多数土壤理化特性指标上无显著差异,但套种红薯对提高土壤田间持水量、有机质含量方面效果更好,而套种绿豆则更有利于提升土壤全氮、全磷、碱解氮含量。总体来看,施用生石灰+火土灰配合套种红薯/绿豆均能有效改善橘园土壤理化性质。     

Changes in the chemical properties of acid soil and aggregate stability in the whole profile under long-term management history

ABSTRACT

The effects of long-term (1959–2005) liming in combination with cattle manure application on the chemical properties and aggregate stability of acid soil were investigated in the whole soil profile to a 100 cm depth. Investigations were performed in a long-term liming and fertilizing field trial at Vezaiciai Branch of Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry situated in West Lithuania. The soil of the study site is Bathygleyic Distric Glossic Retisol (WRB 2014) with a texture of moraine loam. Acid soil had been periodically limed and manured at different intensity for 47 years. The experiment involved the following treatments: (1) unlimed and unfertilized (control); (2) unlimed and 60 t ha^?1 manure; (3) limed and unfertilized; and (4) limed and 60 t ha^?1 manure. During the 47-year period, liming was performed using pulverized limestone at a rate 1.0 (by hydrolytic soil acidity) every 7 years. During the whole study period, the soil received 38.7–36.5 t ha^?1 CaCO₃; 840 t ha^?1 cattle manure, 2740 kg ha^?1 mineral nitrogen; 3030 kg ha^?1 phosphorus and 3810?kg?ha^?1 potassium. The data showed that long-term (47 years) periodic liming of different intensities in combination with cattle manure application significantly changed the chemical properties of the whole soil profile. The soil acidification was neutralized in the topsoil and subsoil to the 60?cm depth when the soil had been systematically limed with 1.0 rate every 7 years in combination with 60?t?ha^?1 manure application every 3–4 years. Periodic long-term liming in combination with manuring had a positive effect on the improvement of chemical properties of acid soil profile in the ElB₁ and ElB₂ horizons. The data of the soil structure in the topsoil and subsoil showed that such liming practice together with manuring had a positive effect on soil aggregate stability.     

Protein changes in the albedo of citrus fruits on postharvesting storage

In this work, major protein changes in the albedo of the fruit peel of Murcott tangor (tangerine x sweet orange) during postharvest ageing were studied through 2D PAGE. Protein content in matured on-tree fruits and in fruits stored in nonstressing [99% relative humidity (RH) and 25 degrees C], cold (99% RH and 4 degrees C), and drought (60% RH and 25 degrees C) conditions was initially determined. Protein identification through MS/MS determinations revealed in all samples analyzed the occurrence of manganese superoxide dismutase (Mn SOD), actin, ATP synthase beta subunit (ATPase), citrus salt-stress associated protein (CitSap), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), translationally controlled tumor protein (TCTP), and a cysteine proteinase (CP) of the papain family. The latter protein was identified in two different gel spots, with different molecular mass, suggesting the simultaneous presence of the proteinase precursor and its active form. While Mn SOD, actin, ATPase, and CitSap were unchanged in the assayed conditions, TCTP and APX were downregulated during the postharvest ageing process. Ageing-induced APX repression was also reversed by drought. CP contents in albedo, which were similar in on- and off-tree fruits, were strongly dependent upon cold storage. The active/total CP protein ratio significantly increased after cold exposure. This proteomic survey indicates that major changes in protein content in the albedo of the peel of postharvest stored citrus fruits are apparently related to the activation of programmed cell death (PCD).     

Rheological properties of concentrated skim milk: influence of heat treatment and genetic variants on the changes in viscosity during storage

Heat treatment during manufacturing of milk powder is one of the most important tools for manipulation of its functional properties, and it is the basis of the classification of these proteins into low-, medium-, and high-heat types. Slight differences in the sequences of the major proteins in milk (genetic variants) seem to have also a significant effect in milk powder processing (U.S. patent). Therefore, the effects of high-temperature storage and heat treatment on skim milk of defined genetic variants of beta-lactoglobulin (beta-LG) were measured. The samples had 45% total solids, the temperature of aging was 50 degrees C, and the heat treatment was 90 degrees C for 10 min prior to evaporation. Measurements on shear rate and on apparent viscosity were determined for each sample. During storage of the concentrated milk, the apparent viscosity and yield values increased markedly, and the age-dependent increase in viscosity in heat-treated concentrated skim milks was much more pronounced than in those prepared from unheated skim milks. The increase in apparent viscosity and yield value with storage time was notably different for milks containing different genetic variants. Unheated concentrated milks containing the B variant of beta-LG showed the most rapid increase in apparent viscosity with storage time, whereas the viscosity increase was slowest in the concentrate containing the A variant. In contrast, heat-treated concentrated milks containing the A variant of beta-LG showed the most rapid increase in viscosity with storage time, whereas the viscosity increase was slowest in the concentrate containing the AB variant. The changes in apparent viscosity of concentrated milk were largely reversible under high shear during the early stages of storage, but samples stored for a long time showed irreversible changes in apparent viscosity. Particle size analysis confirmed irreversible aggregation and fusion of casein particles during storage.     

Fluoride-induced changes in chemical properties and microbial activity of mull,moder and mor soils

Summary Fluoride-induced changes of chemical properties and microbial activities in humus soils were investigated in 12-week lysimeter experiments. The mull soil showed the highest F-adsorption capacity, in which 94% of the fluoride added was retained after addition of 4.5 mg F/cm² as NaF. The moder and mor soils only adsorbed 52% and 41%, respectively. F-additions induced leaching of organic matter, Fe, Al and P and increases in soil pH in the moder and mor. In contrast no Al, Fe and P was leached from the mull and only minor amounts of organic matter dissolved after a single application of 4.5 mg F/cm². Treatments with NaF up to 3700 mg F/kg did not significantly reduce respiration in any of the humus forms. Dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase and arylsulfatase activities as well as nitrification were inhibited at much lower F-additions in the moder and mor soils. A significant decrease in ammonification was observed in the moder. In contrast, microbial processes in the mull soil were not inhibited. This is due to its high adsorption capacity and the relatively low toxicity of F-ions. According to computations using GEOCHEM, the F-ion was the most abundant species in mull lysimeter leachates. Leachates of moder and mor soils contained mainly AIF-complexes (90%–99%). The lack of any effects from NaF treatment on soil respiration is attributed to the observed positive effects, e.g. dissolution of organic matter, desorption of P and increases in soil pH.     

不同柑橘类果胶分子的理化特性、结构及凝胶性能

为了解不同果胶的理化性质、结构与其功能特性的区别,拓展不同性能果胶的针对化应用,提高柑橘加工副产物的附加值。该研究采用酸提法从上饶柚子皮、赣南脐橙皮、南丰蜜桔皮、日本柚子皮、小青柑皮、柠檬皮6种柑橘类水果果皮渣中分别提取果胶,依次为HMP-1、HMP-2、HMP-3、HMP-4、HMP-5和HMP-6,并对其理化特性、结构及凝胶性能进行比较分析。结果表明：不同来源的6种柑橘果胶酯化度在67.20%～75.45%,均为高酯果胶（high methoxyl pectin, HMP）,具备阴离子多糖特性,在提取过程中均出现了不同程度的降解,理化特性和分子结构上存在一定差别。果胶的分子量、黏度、分子链结构等因素共同作用于果胶的凝胶性能,6种HMP均能形成具有一定强度的酸/糖凝胶,将水分截留在三维凝胶网络中,经历冻融循环过程持水性仍在96%以上,具备较好的稳定性。其中分子量较低的HMP-1和HMP-6凝胶强度最高,胶凝度均在200°以上,这与HMP-1的高同型半乳糖醛酸聚糖（HG）含量、较完整的分子结构,以及HMP-6较高的鼠李糖半乳糖醛酸聚糖-I（RG-I）含量及分支度有关,而分子量及黏度较高的HMP-5的弱凝胶强度则与其较大的分子链降解程度及低RG-I含量有关,表明HG和RG-I结构域对凝胶的形成均有促进作用。原子力显微镜图像也显示,HMP-1和HMP-6中出现较为明显的分子链交联。对不同柑橘类果胶的理化性质、结构与凝胶特性进行比较分析,为确定凝胶性能更加优异的提取原料、果胶的扩大化生产及针对性应用提供了理论参考。     

Quantification of carotenoids in citrus fruit by LC-MS and comparison of patterns of seasonal changes for carotenoids among citrus varieties

To quantify the 18 carotenoids on the basic routes of the carotenoid biosynthesis in plants simultaneously, a method for liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) using atmospheric pressure chemical ionization was developed. With this method, the seasonal changes of carotenoids in the flavedo and juice sacs of 39 citrus varieties were analyzed. On the basis of the patterns of seasonal changes of carotenoids in both flavedo and juice sacs, 39 citrus varieties were classified. In flavedo, 39 varieties were classified into 5 clusters, in which the carotenoid profiles were carotenoid-poor, phytoene-abundant, violaxanthin-abundant, violaxanthin- and beta-cryptoxanthin-abundant, and phytoene-, violaxanthin-, and beta-cryptoxanthin-abundant, respectively. In juice sacs, they were classified into 4 clusters, in which the carotenoid profiles were carotenoid-poor, violaxanthin-abundant, violaxanthin- and phytoene-abundant, and violaxanthin-, phytoene-, and beta-cryptoxanthin-abundant, respectively. In flavedo, many citrus varieties, except for the carotenoid-poor and phytoene-abundant varieties, massively accumulated beta,epsilon-carotenoids (e.g., lutein), beta,beta-carotenoids (e.g., beta-cryptoxanthin and violaxanthin), and phytoene, in that order. In juice sacs, the accumulation order among beta,beta-carotenoids was observed. Violaxanthin accumulation preceded beta-cryptoxanthin accumulation in violaxanthin-, phytoene-, and beta-cryptoxanthin-abundant varieties. In each variety, the carotenoid profiles of the flavedo and juice sacs on the basis of the concentration in violaxanthin and beta-cryptoxanthin were similar, with the exception of a few varieties.     

Changes in profile distribution and chemical properties of natural nanoparticles in paddy soils as affected by long-term rice cultivation

Systematic studies on the genesis, properties, and distribution of natural nanoparticles(NNPs) in soil remain scarce. This study examined a soil chronosequence of continuous paddy field land use for periods ranging from 0 to 1 000 years to determine how NNPs in soil changed at the early stages of soil genesis in eastern China. Soil samples were collected from coastal reclaimed paddy fields that were cultivated for 0, 50, 100, 300, 700, and 1 000 years.Natural nanoparticles were isolated and characterized along with bulk soil samples( 2-mm fraction) for selected physical and chemical properties. The NNP content increased with increasing soil cultivation age at 60 g m-2 year-1, which was related to decreasing soil electrical conductivity(172–1 297 μS cm-1) and NNP zeta potentials(from-22 to-36 m V) with increasing soil cultivation age. Changes in several NNP properties, such as pedogenic iron oxide and total organic carbon contents, were consistent with those of the bulk soils across the soil chronosequence. Notably, changes in NNP iron oxide content were obvious and illustrated active chemical weathering, pedogenesis, and potential impacts on the microbial community. Redundancy analysis demonstrated that the soil cultivation age was the most important factor affecting NNP properties, contributing 60.7% of the total variation. Cluster and principal component analysis(PCA) revealed splitting of NNP samples into age groups of 50–300 and 700–1 000 years, indicating rapid evolution of NNP properties, after an initial period of desalinization(approximately 50 years). Overall, this study provides new insights into NNP evolution in soil during pedogenesis and predicting their influences on agriculture and ecological risks over millennial-scale rice cultivation.     

作物营养从有机肥到化肥的变化与反思

二十世纪前,农业生产主要靠施用有机肥为作物提供营养,维持地力不衰,这一时期一般称为“有机营养”阶段。之后,化肥逐渐取代有机肥,成为作物养分的主要来源,农业生产进入以化肥养分供应为主的“无机营养”阶段。化肥的连续大量施用在作物增产方面发挥了巨大作用,也带来了不少问题,以致近年来出现了怀疑或否定农业生产中施用化肥的思潮。为此,本文回顾了植物营养学科的发展历程和我国化肥使用的历史,指出仅靠施用有机肥、种植豆科作物等传统的营养作物的方式难以满足农业生产对养分的需求,化肥与有机肥配合施用是我国农业发展的正确道路。目前生产中,化肥施用存在不合理和过量问题,有机肥施用方面,主要是集约化养殖业与种植业的不合理布局,存在种养分离,难以农业利用等养分管理问题。同时解决这两个问题,除采取已有的合理施肥技术及方法外,还应改变从植物营养角度只重视氮磷钾等无机养分的供应,拓宽为重视碳、氮、磷及钾等不同元素间的时空平衡关系;以农业生态系统养分资源高效循环利用为核心,采取不同方式实现有机–无机营养的结合,应避免陷入有机与无机营养的争论;从生物地球化学循环角度看待养分利用与管理问题,关注养分在田块、流域及区域尺度的流向及对土壤、水体及大气的影响;将科技与政策等有效结合,提高养分利用效率,减少养分损失,保障我国农业的健康持续发展。     

果树施药仿形喷雾神经网络模型及其应用

在试验的基础上,建立了反映果树施药仿形喷雾过程参量与分布质量系数之间映射关系的BP神经网络模型,在建模中运用了正交试验设计、交叉评价网络训练法、样本标准化处理和主元分析等技术,对网络结构及其参数进行了优选。结果显示,网络模型输出同试验结果相关系数R达到0.99,表明具有广泛的适应性。同时,该网络可以实现各种定量分析计算,例如：预测在特定过程参量下的分布质量系数,或者根据指定的效果目标,确定合适的喷雾参量等。     

Nitrogen availability to citrus seedlings from urea and from mineralization of citrus leaf or compost

A pot experiment was conducted using a Candler fine sand (hyperthermic, uncoated, Typic Quartzipsamments) amended with either citrus leaves or compost, to measure the nitrogen (N) mineralization and its availability to two citrus rootstock seedlings. A rapid increase in NH₄‐N concentration was evident in the soil amended with citrus leaves as compared to compost during the initial 14 to 20 d. Subsequently, the concentration of NH₄‐N decreased in the citrus leaves amended soil. The extractable NO₃‐N concentration was greater in the soil amended with citrus leaves as compared to compost, throughout the 270 d duration of the study. The N concentrations and N uptake by Cleopatra mandarin (CM) and Swingle citrumelo (SC) seedlings grown in citrus leaf amended soil were very similar to those in urea amended soil. Therefore, mineralization of N from dry ground citrus leaves was quite rapid. The N concentrations in both rootstock seedlings were much lower in the compost amended and unamended soils as compared to those in either citrus leaves or urea amended soils. Rapid mineralization of N from cirrus leaves added to sandy soil, resulting in an increased availability of N, suggested that the contribution of N from shed leaf mineralization must be considered while developing N rate recommendations for improving N use efficiency.     

有机肥配施化肥对柑橘养分吸收及土壤酶活力的影响

通过开展田间试验研究了有机肥与化肥配合施用对柑橘树体养分吸收及土壤肥力的影响.结果表明,有机肥替代25％化肥及有机肥替代30％化肥处理对柑橘果实具有稳产增产的作用,增产率最高可达9.8％.有机肥替代化肥处理能够满足树体对氮、磷、钾养分的需求,而且还可以增加柑橘树体对部分中微量元素的吸收.两个有机肥替代化肥的处理土壤pH...     

豆科绿肥替代化学氮肥促进柑橘幼苗生长和氮素吸收

  【目的】  果园豆科绿肥还田是实现有机肥替代化肥的重要途径。研究不同绿肥替代化学氮肥比例对柑橘幼苗生长、氮素吸收、根系形态及土壤微生物量的影响,以期为柑橘减施氮肥和实现绿色有机生产提供理论依据。  【方法】  以1年生柑橘(Citrus reticulate L.)幼苗为材料进行盆栽试验,供试绿肥为拉巴豆(Dolichos lablab L.)和印度豇豆(Vigna sinensis Hayata)。在相同氮磷钾养分施用量下,设置5个绿肥氮替代比例:0 (100%F)、25% (25%G+75%F)、50% (50%G+50%F)、75% (75%G+25%F)和100% (100%G),磷钾量不足时由化肥补齐。在柑橘抽春梢期测定其各部位干物质量和氮素累积量,分析柑橘根系形态和根系活力,并测定土壤微生物量碳氮含量。  【结果】  相比100%F处理,两种豆科绿肥替代化学氮肥均显著提高了柑橘干物质量和氮素累积量,以75%G+25%F和100%G处理的效果最好,其干物质量和氮素吸收量分别提高42.71%～82.95%和38.88%～53.31%;土壤微生物量碳含量提高了5.12%～48.42%,土壤微生物量氮含量提高了6.35%～133.67%,并且微生物量碳氮含量随着绿肥替代化学氮肥比例的增加而增加。绿肥替代化学氮肥处理明显提高了柑橘幼苗总根长和根表面积,其中以< 1.5 mm径级根提高最多。相比100%F处理,绿肥替代化学氮肥处理的柑橘幼苗总根长和根表面积分别提高88.34%～324.87%和78.82%～372.91%;柑橘根径级<1.5 mm 根长和根表面积随着拉巴豆替代化学氮肥比例增加而增加,而印度豇豆处理则以替代50%和100%化学氮肥处理最高。同时,相比单施化肥处理,拉巴豆和印度豇豆替代化学氮肥处理柑橘根系活力分别提高43.95%～47.48%和40.61%～66.14%。相关性和结构方程分析表明,两种豆科绿肥替代化学氮肥可直接影响柑橘干物质量,也可通过改善柑橘根系形态和活力,增加土壤微生物量碳氮含量,直接或间接地影响柑橘氮累积量和干物质量;绿肥C/N值和柑橘氮素累积量存在显著正相关性,其通过直接影响柑橘氮素累积量,或间接改变柑橘根系形态、根系活力和微生物量,进而直接或间接影响柑橘干物质量。  【结论】  在等氮磷钾养分条件下,拉巴豆和印度豇豆替代化学氮肥均明显促进了土壤微生物增殖,提高柑橘根系活力、根系长度和根表面积,促进柑橘氮素吸收和干物质积累。在不改变柑橘常规氮磷钾施用量的前提下,豆科绿肥替代75%～100%的化学氮肥为较适宜的替代比例,其能够促进柑橘幼苗氮素吸收和干物质积累。     

Tillage choices affect biochemical properties in the soil profile

Intensive conventional farming and continuous use of land resources can lead to agro-ecosystem decline and increased releases of CO₂ to the atmosphere as soil organic matter (OM) decays. The aim of this research was to evaluate the influence of varying types and depths of tillage on microbial biomass, C content, and humification in the profile of a loamy-sandy soil in the Mugello valley, close to the Apennine Mountains, in Italy. Soil samples were collected to depths of 0–10, 10–20, 20–30 and 30–40 cm, in the ninth year following introduction of tillage practices. Highest content of all C forms examined (total, extractable and humified) was found at the 0–10 cm depth with minimum tillage (MT) and ripper subsoiling (RS) and at the 30–40 cm depth with conventional tillage (CT). Humified C decreased with depth in soils under MT and RS. None of the tillage systems showed any difference in total N and microbial biomass C in the upper depths, but concentrations were greater below 20 cm in soils subjected to CT, than other tillage systems. Crop production was similar in all tillage systems. Stratification and redistribution of nutrients were consistent with the well known effects of tillage reduction. Total organic C and its distribution in the profile depended on the tillage system employed. MT and RS can be regarded as excellent conservation tillage systems, because they also sequester C.     

Flavored yogurt complex viscosity influences real-time aroma release in the mouth and sensory properties

The influence of flavored yogurt texture on aroma perception and in-nose aroma release measured by atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry analysis was investigated. The study was carried out on six yogurts varied by protein composition and mechanical treatment. For the same matrix composition, the complex viscosity of yogurts influenced in-nose release and perception. After swallowing, aroma release and intensity of olfactory perception were stronger in low-viscosity yogurts than in high-viscosity yogurts. Moreover, the protein composition influenced aroma release only when yogurts exhibited wide variations of complex viscosity and consequently texture. In mouth, aroma release and perception were influenced more by yogurt mechanical treatment than by protein composition. On the basis of mass transfer analysis, the main physical mechanism which could explain the difference in aroma release would be the surface exchange area developed in the mouth and in the throat.     

Soil physical and chemical changes due to tillage and their implications for erosion and productivity

A seven-year tillage trial was conducted in central New South Wales, Australia to measure the effect and extent of conservation tillage practices on soil physical and chemical properties. Three tillage treatments, traditional tillage (TT), reduced tillage (RT) and direct drilling (DD) were imposed on hardsetting red-brown earths at Cowra and Grenfell. A fourth treatment, direct drilling without grazing (NT) was imposed at Cowra only.

At Cowra there was a significant trend of reduced total runoff in the DD and NT treatments but not in the RT treatment. Runoff significantly increased in the TT treatment.

At Grenfell, runoff decreased in all treatments but only significantly in the DD and RT treatments. Similar trends in total sediment loss were measured at both sites.

Associated physical measurements of saturated hydraulic conductivity, sorptivity and bulk density confirmed that the changes in runoff were due to the creation of macroporosity greater than 0.75 mm diameter. The relationship between macroporosity, organic carbon and aggregate stability is discussed. Conclusions were that in these soil types runoff and sediment loss were affected more by destruction of macroporosity due to cultivation than changes in organic carbon from residue retention. To achieve these soil improvements using conservation tillage a continuous cropping period of four years was necessary to obtain significant and consistent trends.

Soil chemical data showed that total nitrogen increased with conservation tillage practices. Available phosphorus changes due to tillage were not observed because of more than adequate fertiliser applied. Soil pH decreased significantly in the DD and NT treatments at Cowra only. The implications of these chemical changes are discussed.     

Analysis of the peptide profile of milk and its changes during thermal treatment and storage

In this study a new method was developed for analysis of the low molecular weight protein fraction of milk, allowing a simple and fast overview of the peptide profile of various milk samples. For this purpose, immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) was coupled with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS). By this technique, two major peptides in milk could be identified as fragments of alpha-s1-casein. During heat treatment of raw milk, five new peptides were generated, the origin of which could be assigned to the casein fraction. Storage experiments with extended shelf life milk at 4 degrees C did not show any changes in the peptide profile, whereas in ultra high temperature milk stored at room temperature, one peptide increased significantly, which was identified as the N-terminus of alpha-s1-casein. The peptide was assumed to be formed in an enzymatic reaction, which was confirmed in a storage experiment with sterilized milk. Analyses of different commercially available milk samples confirmed the results obtained with the heated and stored milk. Furthermore, differences in the peptide profiles of the samples, probably due to different cow breeds or lactation stages, were observed. These results establish IMAC prior to MALDI-TOF-MS as a valid tool for the rapid analysis of the peptide profile of milk.