Estimating the influence of knots on the local longitudinal stiffness in radiata pine structural timber

A theoretical model is developed to evaluate the negative effect of knots on the local longitudinal stiffness (elastic modulus) in radiata pine structural timber. The parameters in the compliance matrices for knotwood in branches are estimated by extending the mechanical formula for clearwood also to knotwood, assuming a structural similarity for stem and branch. The stiffness of knots in the longitudinal direction of sawn boards is then obtained by coordinate transformation. The effective local longitudinal stiffness in a mixture of wood (a combination of knotwood and stem wood) is estimated in terms of the elastic moduli and volume fractions of all phases using a modified rule of mixtures. The effects of branch angle and volume fraction of a knot on the local longitudinal stiffness of structural timber are simulated under different scenarios. Experimental observations also demonstrate similar trends to those shown in the simulations. Received 5 December 2000 The author is grateful to Prof. John Walker (The New Zealand School of Forestry), Dr. Huawu Liu (Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand), Dr. Ian Cave (Department of Chemistry, Canterbury University) and Dr. Dave Cown (New Zealand Forest Research) for their comments and advice during the preparation of this paper.     

Predicting moisture content and density distribution of Scots pine by microwave scanning of sawn timber

This study was carried out to investigate the possibility of calibrating a prediction model for the moisture content and density distribution of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) using microwave sensors. The material was initially of green moisture content and was thereafter dried in several steps to zero moisture content. At each step, all the pieces were weighed, scanned with a microwave sensor (Satimo 9,4GHz), and computed tomography (CT)-scanned with a medical CT scanner (Siemens Somatom AR.T.). The output variables from the microwave sensor were used as predictors, and CT images that correlated with known moisture content were used as response variables. Multivariate models to predict average moisture content and density were calibrated using the partial least squares (PLS) regression. The models for average moisture content and density were applied at the pixel level, and the distribution was visualized. The results show that it is possible to predict both moisture content distribution and density distribution with high accuracy using microwave sensors.     

Blister rust in maritime pine

Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) seedlings from four stands of central Italy were inoculated with a suspension of 75,000 basidiospores/ml. Significant differences among the stands were found for the following traits: percentages between nonspotted and inoculated seedlings; and percentages between seedlings with spermagonia of Cronartium flaccidum and spotted seedlings. Genetic variation in blister rust resistance among the stands and among the families within a stand confirms the validity of the idea to select the stands which are exposed to heavy rust infection and then within the selected stands to choose trees able to supply the highest possible number of nonspotted seedlings and seedlings with needle spots but without spermagonia.     

MICROCOMPUTER PROCESSING THE PHOTOGRAPH OF TIMBER WITH HOLE KNOTS

THRESHoLDWhenthetimberswiththeho1eknotsarepassedthesystemofX-raynon-de-structiveinvestigation,thesimulatednu-meralsfigureoftheholeknotsappearinthemonitor.Thesimulatednumeralsfigureisshownintablel.Meanwhilethehistogramofthisfigurearedoublepeakcertainly.Inordertoidentifytheedgeoftheholeknotswithnakedeyeandcarryoutautomatictreatment,Wetakethebinaryva1uetreatmentforthefigure'Thechoos-ingthresholdisaveryimportantpartinthebinaryvaluetreatment.Howtochooseasuitablethreshold?Weshouldpaymuchattenti…     

Micronutrient distribution in 16-year-old maritime pine

Concentrations and contents of the micronutrients Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, and B were measured in various tree compartments of a 16-year-old stand of maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Soland in Ait.). The micronutrients were actively redistributed within the tree. The longer-lived aerial tissues, trunks and branches, constituted the major micronutrient reservoirs, with the exception of manganese which accumulated in the needles.     

Transverse shrinkage in maritime pine juvenile wood

Summary This paper reports experimental results concerning the transverse shrinkage variability within and between trees of two samples composed of 17 eleven-year-old and 20 twenty-year-old maritime pine trees harvested in two stands at the Forest Research Centre of INRA Pierroton in Aquitaine. The within tree variations are divided into a height effect and a radial effect, both related to the occurrence of juvenile wood. It is shown that the tangential shrinkage and the anisotropic ratio between radial and tangential dimensional variations are increasing from the top to the base of the stems (+14.9% and +16.9%, respectively), and that this effect is independent of the tree. The variations from the pith outward are also significant for these parameters (+25.0% for at and –9.5% for the ratio) and for the radial shrinkage (+37.2% ), but in this case, the amplitude of the effect is depending on a tree effect. The relationship between shrinkage and density is also studied, showing poorly significant correlation when considering each sampling positions independently.     

Influence of provenance,silvicultural regime and tree shape on the quality of maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) timber

The aim of this study was to establish the sources of variation in maritime pine wood properties related to appearance and strength, because of the importance of this wood in the sawing industry in Galicia (NW Spain). Ten trees from each of ten plots of the species (i.e., 100 trees) growing in Galicia were felled and sawn to produce the structural planks required for studying the presence of external strength-reducing characteristics. The planks were sampled from the basal logs to 16 m height in the stems, yielding cross sections of target dimensions 100 × 40 mm to 200 × 200 mm. We propose a model in which individual tree height and dominant height are used to predict the knottiness of planks from trees in mature stands. The abundance of externally visible knots on faces and edges of sawn planks is therefore more dependent on the stand location than on the prior silvicultural treatment of the stand.     

Predicting moisture content and density distribution of Scots pine by microwave scanning of sawn timber II: evaluation of models generated on a pixel level

The purpose of this study was to use images from a microwave sensor on a pixel level for simultaneous prediction of moisture content and density of wood. The microwave sensor functions as a line-scan camera with a pixel size of 8mm. Boards of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), 25 and 50mm thick, were scanned at three different moisture contents. Dry density and moisture content for each pixel were calculated from measurements with a computed tomography scanner. It was possible to create models for prediction of density on a pixel level. Models for prediction of moisture content had to be based on average values over homogeneous regions. Accuracy will be improved if it is possible to make a classification of knots, heartwood, sapwood, etc., and calibrate different models for different types of wood. The limitations of the sensor used are high noise in amplitude measurements and the restriction to one period for phase measurements.     

Photosynthetic responses to phosphorus nutrition in two-year-old maritime pine seedlings

We analyzed processes limiting photosynthesis in two-year-old, container-grown Pinus pinaster Ait. seedlings subjected to phosphorus (P) deficiency. After withholding P for 3 months, seedlings were supplied P at four relative addition rates (0, 0.005, 0.01 and 0.02 day(-1)) in a nutrient recycling system. At Weeks 12 and 22, responses of photosynthesis to CO(2) and irradiance were measured and the following parameters derived: maximal velocity of carboxylation by Rubisco, V(m); apparent quantum efficiency of electron transport, alpha maximal electron transport rate, J(m); stomatal conductance and relative stomatal limitation of photosynthesis. At Week 22, these measurements were combined with concurrent measurements of chlorophyll fluorescence to determine the quantum yield of PSII, and a theoretical partitioning of total light-driven linear electron flow between fractions used to regenerate carboxylated and oxygenated RuBP. After 12 weeks of treatment, needle P concentrations ranged from 0.04 to 0.15 x 10(-2) g g(DW) (-1), and then remained constant until Week 22. Values of J(m), alpha and V(m) increased with increasing needle P concentration (from 30 to 133 &mgr;mol m(-2) s(-1), 0.02 to 0.25 mol mol(-1) and 13 to 78 &mgr;mol CO(2) m(-2) s(-1) at the lowest and highest needle P concentrations, respectively). Under ambient conditions, net assimilation rates in P-deficient seedlings were limited by V(m) under saturating irradiance, and by J(m) under limiting irradiance, but not by triose-P regeneration. There was no detectable change in the partitioning of total light-driven linear electron flow between the fractions used for carboxylation and oxygenation. Predawn photochemical efficiency of PSII was significantly reduced in seedlings with low P concentrations. Although stomatal conductance tended to decrease with decreasing needle P concentration, relative stomatal limitation was not significantly affected. At Week 22, there was an attenuation of the effects of P nutrition on V(m) and an increase in alpha and J(m) that was probably related to cessation of growth and the seasonal decline in natural irradiance.     

Method for predicting tension capacity of sawn timber considering slope of grain around knots

This study introduced a new parameter, the area reduction factor (ARF), to consider the effect of knots on the tension strength of timber. It is an improved version of the knot area ratio (KAR). ARF considers both the projected area of knots and the effect of the slope of grains around the knots. The tension capacity of a tested structural timber was predicted as a product of ARF, clear wood tension strength parallel to the grain, and the area of the cross section. ARF was determined as the minimum value obtained when a knot measurement window of 100 mm was slid along the plank. The prediction method was examined with 11 planks. The average ratio of the predicted capacity to the actual value was 1.11 with a coefficient of variation of 0.26. The average ratio obtained by using a KAR-based parameter, the clear wood area ratio (CWAR), was 2.15 with a coefficient of variation of 0.23. To study the reliability of ARF and CWAR as single parameters, the correlations of ARF and CWAR with the tension strength were determined for 57 planks. The coefficients of determination for ARF were slightly better than those for CWAR, although both of them seemed to be quite poor predictors of tension capacity when used alone. Therefore, a multiparameter model is preferred and should be a subject for further studies. The results of the structural tension tests conducted in this study have been presented in part at the 40th meeting of the International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction: Working Commission W18 - Timber Structures (CIB-W18) in Bled, Slovenia, August 2007     

Circumferential variation of heartwood and stem quality in maritime pine stems

Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) is an important timber and pulpwood species covering about 4 million ha in Portugal, Spain and France. This work studied the cross-sectional distribution of heartwood and sapwood along the stem using 3D modelling on 20 trees. The target was to assess the potential of this species for the industrial production of heartwood sawn products. The maritime pine stems were characterized by wide sapwood of 10 cm, in average, and the presence of heartwood at all height levels with constant diameter up to 35 % tree height, decreasing afterwards. In the radial section, the heartwood follows a circumferential-like shape which changes along the stem. Pith eccentricity index values were low and homogeneous regarding to stem and higher for heartwood. Heartwood cross-sectional shape was constant up to 45 % of total height of the tree and more elongated upwards. The constant heartwood diameter, low taper and pith eccentricity index, and an approximate circular shape up to 10 m height indicated these species’ potential to produce solid wood products made out of heartwood.     

Radial profiles of sap flow with increasing tree size in maritime pine

We investigated the radial variation of sap flow within sapwood below the live crown in relation to tree size in 10-, 32-, 54- and 91-year-old maritime pine stands (Pinus pinaster Ait.). Radial variations were determined with two thermal dissipation sensors; one measured sap flux in the outer 20 mm of the xylem (Jref), whereas the other was moved radially across the sapwood in 20-mm increments to measure sap flux at multiple depths (Jref). For all tree sizes, sap flow ratios (Ri = JiJref (-1)) declined with increasing sapwood depth, but the decrease was steeper in trees with large diameters. Correction factors (C) were calculated to extrapolate Jref for an estimate of whole-tree sap flux. A negative linear relationship was established between stem diameter and C, the latter ranging from 0.6 to 1.0. We found that neglecting these radial corrections in 10-, 32-, 54- and 91-year-old trees would lead to overestimation of stand transpiration by 4, 14, 26 and 47%, respectively. Therefore, it is necessary to account for the differential radial profiles of sap flow in relation to tree size when comparing tree transpiration and hydraulic properties among trees differing in size.     

Changes in quantitative patterns of dead wood in maritime pine plantations over time

Although the volume of dead wood is commonly acknowledged as an indicator of biodiversity in sustainable forest management schemes, only few data are available for plantation forests. To evaluate the volume and qualify the diversity of woody debris along a chronosequence of maritime pine plantations, we sampled downed woody debris, snags and stumps in 143 stands of different ages. To test the hypothesis that the pattern of dead wood accumulation mainly results from silvicultural operations, we developed a predictive model. It combined an empirical growth model evaluating the amount of dead wood produced by successive thinnings with a decay function that estimated the loss of dead wood with time.     

Feasibility of improved slotted bolted connection for timber moment frames

This note examines the feasibility of an improved slotted bolted connection for timber moment frames. In the improved connection, steel tubes are inserted into drill holes in glulam and fixed to the glulam with resin injection. Aluminum splice plates with curved slots, or curved elongated holes, are fastened mechanically by using high-strength bolts that go through the steel tubes. Since the compression due to bolt tension is fully supported by the steel tubes, the reduction of bolt tension due to shrinkage of the glulam can be avoided. The use of slotted aluminum splice plates allows stable energy dissipation due to smooth sliding between the aluminum splice plates and the end surfaces of the steel tubes within the specified range of rotation angle. Through quasistatic cyclic loading tests of two connection specimens, it was demonstrated that stable and nearly rigid-plastic hysteresis loops were obtained whose equivalent viscous damping ratio was more than 30% in the range of rotation angle close to or greater than 1/50 radian. Although further improvement is necessary, the experimental results demonstrate the feasibility and potential of the present connection.     

Forward selection in a maritime pine polycross progeny trial using pedigree reconstruction

Key message

Molecular markers were used for paternity recovery in a maritime pine ( Pinus pinaster Ait.) polycross trial, facilitating forward selection. Different breeding strategies for seed orchard establishment were evaluated by comparing genetic gains and diversity. This work opens up new perspectives in maritime pine breeding.

Context

Polycross mating designs are widely used in forest tree breeding to evaluate parental breeding values for backward selection. Alternatively, polycross progeny trials may be used to select the best trees on the basis of individual breeding values and molecular pedigree analysis.

Aims

This study aimed to test such a forward selection strategy for the maritime pine breeding program.

Methods

In a maritime pine polycross trial, progeny with higher breeding values for growth and stem straightness was first preselected with or without relatedness constraints. After paternity recovery, the preselected trees were ranked on the basis of their breeding values, estimated from the recovered full pedigree. Finally, the best candidates were selected with three different strategies (forward, backward, mixed) and three levels of coancestry constraints to establish a virtual clonal seed orchard.

Results

Complete pedigrees were successfully recovered for most of the preselected trees. There was no major difference in expected genetic gains between the two preselection strategies which differed for relatedness constraints. Genetic gains were slightly higher for forward selection than for classical backward selection.

Conclusion

This seminal study opens up new perspectives for using forward selection within the French maritime pine breeding program.

     

Phenotypic plasticity and climatic adaptation in an Atlantic maritime pine breeding population

Context

Pinus pinaster Ait. is found in the Iberian Peninsula under Mediterranean and Atlantic conditions. Both climates encounter each other in Galicia (NW Spain), where two bioclimatic regions can be differentiated: coastal and inland. A breeding program was launched in the coastal area, with two breeding and deployment areas delimited.

Aims

We analyse plasticity patterns across regions in a coastal breeding population to assess the suitability of current breeding areas and how genetic material will likely respond to future climate.

Methods

Total height at ages 3 and 8?years was assessed in 16 trials established along the coast and in inner Galicia. Clustering of environments with similar genotypic performance, family sensitivities to climatic factors and stability analyses were performed.

Results

Sizeable genetic variation in plasticity was found among families, and crossover genotype-by-environment interactions were detected within and between regions. It was unfeasible to regionalize Galicia into alternative areas of stable genotypic performance. Only the cold regime was found to noticeably underlie the array of phenotypic responses to changing environmental conditions.

Conclusions

Results suggest that previous delimitation in two breeding areas is pointless and indicate reduced effects of a changing climate towards Mediterranean conditions on decreasing population fitness.     

论红松果材林的生态经济问题

本文全面主红松果材林生态系统的特点,划分了吉林省红松果材林的栽培区域。提出了红松果材林复合生态系统类型和红松果材林经营的技术问题。     

Automatic detection of sound knots and loose knots on sugi using gray level co-occurrence matrix parameters

• Context  

Knowledge of the occurrence of sound and loose knots on the surface of sawn sugi (Cryptomeria japonica L.f.) is important for its grading and application.     

马尾松截根苗造林林分生长状况分析

由于马尾松常规苗主根发达，侧根较少，造林成活率较低。1990年起选用了马尾松截根苗造林，以期提高其造林成活率，取得了较好的效果。^[1-2]通过对马尾松截根苗造林13年生林分生长现状调查分析，试图进一步揭示截根对林木生长的影响，为大力推广应用截根苗造林提供了科学的理论依据。     

Customer adapted grading of Scots pine sawn timber using a multivariate method

To define new grading rules, or to customize the ones in use in a rule-based automatic grading (RBAG) system of boards, is a time-consuming job for a sawmill engineer. This has the effect that changes are rarely made. The objective of this study was to continue the development of a method that replaces the calibration of grading rule settings by a holistic-subjective automatic grading, using multivariate models. The objective was also to investigate if this approach can improve sawmill profitability and at the same time have a satisfied customer. For the study, 323 Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) boards were manually graded according to the preferences of an important customer. That is, a customer that regularly purchases significant volumes of sawn timber. This manual grading was seen as reference grading in this work. The same boards were also scanned and graded by a RBAG system, calibrated for the same customer. Multivariate models for prediction of board grade based on aggregated knot variables, obtained from the scanning, were calibrated using partial least squares regression. The results show that prediction of board grades by the multivariate models were more correct, with respect to the manual grading, than the grading by the RBAG system. The prediction of board grades based on multivariate models resulted in 76–87% of the boards graded correctly, according to the manual grading, while the corresponding number was 63% for the RBAG system.