Brownfield regeneration to greenspace: Delivery of project objectives for social and environmental gain

In Europe and North America regeneration of brownfield land is an important objective of government policy. Regeneration to greenspace in particular, has been used to help reverse social and environmental decline, with typical benefits including increased flood retention capacity, temperature regulation, habitat for wildlife, building communities, encouraging local engagement and providing space for play and recreation.Regeneration project objectives are set to maximise the benefits of greenspace creation for a given location; setting the right objectives is critical to lever funding required to pump-prime activity. However, opportunities to heighten benefits delivered through the process of regeneration can be overlooked. This research identified that there was a disconnect between practices required to meet the defined objectives for a specific site and regeneration activity. This was often due to gaps in the project delivery plans: tasks which are important to realise improvement were missing. Emphasis was often found to be on site delivery, with a benign assumption that the benefits will arise as a result of project completion. Although there are some examples of practices to optimise benefits, a lack of consistency indicates scope for improvement.A logic model was co-produced with practitioners in a bid to address this issue and support project delivery planning. The model maps the social and environmental objectives for a site against specific project delivery stages. The model was refined through a workshop exercise involving discussion with practitioners who were planning new urban greenspaces on brownfield land.This paper presents the logic model to demonstrate what needs to be considered to improve the project delivery planning process, signposting the steps required to translate project objectives into outcomes, to optimise social and environmental benefits delivered during and after regeneration. The model could support those involved in project delivery planning and help raise the overall quality of new greenspace.     

Characterizing the provision and inequality of primary school greenspaces in China’s major cities based on multi-sensor remote sensing

Environmental and green justice problems occur globally, especially in cities with unequal access to urban greenspaces. Recently, inequality in school greenspaces has drawn growing attention, given the importance of campus green environments in young students’ health and academic performance. However, the commonly used Normalized Differences Vegetation Index (NDVI) method for measuring greenspace from satellite imagery is hindered by the saturation issue and tend to underestimate greenspace at high vegetation cover areas, causing large uncertainties in greenspace inequality studies at a national scale. Besides, despite the progress on the inequality of public greenspace exposure, our understandings of primary school greenspace provision and inequality, as well as the driving factors, for young students in a developing world (e.g., China) is still limited. To address these issues, we first adapted a spectral unmixing technique based on multi-sensor remote sensing for more accurate measurements of greenspace provision. Then, we evaluated the provision and inequality of greenspace for 19,681 primary schools in China’s 31 major cities and examined the driving factors using an integrated path analysis. Our findings revealed that: (1) Our proposed multi-sensor remote sensing-based method for greenspace measurement is reliable across our study area with a R² of 0.81 and RMSE of 0.14; in contrast, the traditional NDVI-based greenspace measurement saturated at the range of 0.7–1.0, leading to much lower accuracy (a R² of 0.72 and RMSE of 0.24). (2) Most of the cities under study had low to moderate levels of inequality in primary school greenspace (Gini index < 0.5), but the overall greenspace provision was relatively low; Five cities under study facing high inequality in greenspace exposure (Gini index ≥ 0.5) as well as low greenspace provision (mean fraction cover < 0.25). (3) The monthly maximum temperature and the mean cover of greenspace in primary schools were identified as variables directly affecting the inequality in primary school greenspace (R² = 0.76, p-value < 0.05), whereas the city-level government revenue manifests its effects through the mean cover of greenspace in primary schools and city-level mean greenspace cover. By developing a novel framework for examining the provision and inequality of greenspace in all primary schools in China’s major cities, our study provides valuable insights for designing and evaluating school greening programs in support of healthier learning environment development for next generations.     

The impact of greenspace size on the extent of local nocturnal air temperature cooling in London

Urban greenspaces can provide a significant cooling service, which extends beyond the greenspace boundaries. Consequently, greenspaces are recognised for their ability to locally reduce the urban heat island, a phenomenon that has negative implications for the thermal comfort and health of urban citizens. However, the amount of cooling provided by a greenspace and the distance over which that cooling extends depend on factors such as greenspace size and characteristics. Based on data collected in and around eight London greenspaces, with areas ranging from 0.2 to 12.1 ha, this work models the distance and magnitude of cooling provided by each greenspace and defines the relationships between cooling extent and the size of greenspace or the areas of tree canopy and grass. Such data, illustrating the value of expanding the area of urban greenspaces and explaining how cooling relates to greenspace size/coverage characteristics, will be of use to urban planners and climatologists concerned with finding solutions to the urban heat island. Modelling was statistically valid on calm warm nights (with mean air temperatures ≥10 °C and wind speed ≤3 m s⁻¹). On those nights, cooling distance increased linearly with increasing area of greenspace, tree canopy and grass, but the relationship between those factors and the amount of cooling was non-linear. Cooling distance was most strongly related with tree canopy whereas the amount of cooling was most strongly linked to the grass coverage. Our results suggest that a comprehensive cooling service on calm warm nights within cities with similar climate/characteristics to London may come from greenspaces with 3–5 ha, situated 100–150 m apart.     

Political ecology of exurban “lifestyle” landscapes at Christchurch's contested urban fence

This paper examines the relationship of planning ideals of sharply defining edges between urban density and greenspace and alternative urban greening arrangements as they are manifested in a case study of exurban “lifestyle blocks” on the fringes of Christchurch, Aotearoa New Zealand. Exurban development outside Christchurch's urban growth boundary – called the “urban fence” – provides an example of tension between municipal attempts to curb sprawl and exurbanites’ desire to live in the dispersed settlements outside of urban boundaries. These struggles play out at different scales and in a range of different metropolitan contexts. This paper reports on the results of an ethnographic study of Christchurch urban fringe residents’ residential land-use narratives and practices. The paper focuses on landscape preferences and concerns of a sample of small-scale productive land users and explores the implications of their versions of urban greening in the context of policy visions for the urban edge. A political ecology interpretation highlights relationships in this case study between competing claims about fringe greening and fringe landscape practices. These contests over the landscapes of the urban edge illustrate ways that municipal and regional planning visions for the urban edge conflict with the ideals and practices of those residents and land use managers who might otherwise be some of the strongest supporters of urban greening initiatives. Competing discourses about the urban edge relate in different ways to concerns about abrupt urban containment and to practices that act on these concerns. I briefly discuss promising examples of edge greening in this case that may provide models for participatory management of contested and multi-use greenspace at the urban–rural fringe.     

Urban residents value multi-functional urban greenspaces

Urban greenspaces are multifunctional spaces, providing services to people and biodiversity. With space in urban areas being limited creation and maintenance of urban greenspaces relies on understanding the preferences of urban residents for their characteristics. Such preferences are expected to vary with current availability, and the availability of alternatives to greenspaces such as gardens or gyms. We carried out a nationwide discrete choice experiment with Scottish urban residents to estimate values associated with greenspace attributes of: recreational features; plants and natural features; trees; accessibility; time to walk from home and size, to test the hypotheses that: (i) people are willing to pay to maintain greenspace, (ii) people have willingness to pay for greenspaces with multiple functions, including features for direct use (e.g. play equipment) and biodiversity (e.g. wildflowers), (iii) willingness to pay for individual greenspace will vary according to socioeconomic characteristics and (iv) vary with the amount of greenspace or substitute facilities available. We find a positive willingness to pay to maintain greenspace in general, and higher willingness to pay for larger greenspaces closer to home, which are multifunctional and contain both direct use features (e.g. children’s play park) and biodiversity features. Although we find significant heterogeneity in willingness to pay for maintaining greenspace, this is not well explained by either socioeconomic characteristics or the availability of substitute facilities. Our results have relevance for urban natural capital accounting, and demonstrate to urban planners the importance of the design and maintenance of multi-functional greenspaces for urban populations and would benefit from future research that further explores heterogeneity, including perceptions of greenspace access and substitutes, and greenspace quality.     

Pocket parks in a compact city: how do birds respond to increasing residential density?

The desire to improve urban sustainability is motivating many city planners to adopt growth strategies that increase residential density, leading to substantial changes to urban landscapes. What effect this change will have on biodiversity remains unclear, but it is expected that the role of public greenspace in providing wildlife habitat will become critical. We explored the role of urban “pocket parks” as habitat for birds, and how this role changed with increasing residential density in the surrounding neighbourhood. We found that parks in neighbourhoods with high levels of public greenspace (corresponding to less residential land) supported more bird species and individuals overall, and more woodland-dependent species, insectivores and hollow-nesters. Total greenspace area was more important (included in the best ranked models for all bird responses) than the configuration (number, average size and connectivity) of greenspace patches. The majority of species were common suburban birds, indicating that species we assume are tolerant to urban areas will be negatively affected by increasing residential density. Parks form part of an interconnected network of urban open space. For parks to continue to support a diverse native bird community, the network must be viewed, managed, and maintained in its entirety. We suggest three key management actions to improve the bird diversity values of urban greenspaces in compact cities: (1) Increase urban greenspace cover in residential neighbourhoods. (2) Increase vegetation structure in greenspace. (3) Encourage homeowners to plant trees and shrubs.     

Varying age-gender associations between body mass index and urban greenspace

Urban greenspace benefits urbanites in numerous ways ranging from regulating flooding, air quality, and local climate to providing opportunities for exercise and relaxation. These benefits may influence human health. Greenspace, for example, may facilitate exercise, thereby helping to reduce body mass index (BMI) and combat obesity, a current epidemic of great public health concern. Little evidence exists to support this assertion, however, and we lack a full understanding of the mechanisms whereby this relationship operates, the populations for whom greenspace is linked to weight status, and the aspects of urban greenspace that are linked to weight status. This study seeks to identify relationships among the composition and arrangement of greenspace and BMI for different populations using regression models for eight age and gender groups in Cleveland, Ohio, US. We find that several greenspace variables are related to BMI for women under 65 years and males under 51 years, but not for older groups, and that the aspects and types of greenspace that are significantly related to BMI vary among groups. Relationships between greenspace attributes and BMI are generally stronger for female groups and for younger groups. Providing access to greenspace with particular attributes such as greenspaces with water, canopy cover, or connected greenspaces could support a healthy weight status for some populations, but these attributes are not consistent across age and gender groups. These results could help to inform policy aimed at designing urban greenspace to benefit the health of different population subgroups.     

Urban greenspace access,uses, and values: A case study of user perceptions in metropolitan ravine parks

Urban greenspaces provide critical ecosystem services to urban area residents. While urban greenspaces provide a range of ecosystem services, cultural ecosystem services may be the most prominent to residents. Cultural ecosystem services provide benefits through educational, recreational, social, and spiritual opportunities. More knowledge is required about greenspace users’ perspectives of their local greenspaces, which will enrich park planners’ knowledge of the preferences, concerns, and potential points of conflict that greenspace users experience. To help increase this knowledge, we conducted a survey with closed and open-ended questions and supported it with a park audit and photographic evidence. As a case study, data were collected in six ravine parks in the City of Toronto, Canada. Ravine parks were of particular interest as they are a unique form of socio-ecological greenspace that have varied management goals which on occasion may differ from some user preferences and values. Quantitative data were analyzed with analysis of variance and chi-square tests of independence, and qualitative data were analyzed with conventional qualitative content analysis. Our results highlight that current ravine park users vary widely in their characteristics and the values they pursue through their park access. While the range of ravine park types accommodates some of this variability, there is also conflict between ravine park users with different values and expectations. We are offering a series of recommendations addressing these findings and hope that insights from this deep and rich case study will be of use to other forested, urban greenspaces under similar conditions.     

Spatial variations of plant species diversity in urban soil seed banks in Beijing,China: Implications for plant regeneration and succession

The near-to-nature urban forestry concept and practices are widely recognized for urban greening, urban ecosystem restoration, urban greenspace management for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services provision. However, the regeneration and succession of urban vegetation are rarely studied due to the complex settings of the urban environment. To this end, we conducted a large-scale field investigation in the metropolitan area of Beijing, China to explore the spatial variations in plant species composition and diversity in soil seed banks, and their similarity to the aboveground vegetation to assess the potential of urban plant regeneration. Overall, 657 vegetation and soil sampling plots from 219 grids, measuring 2 km × 2 km each, were investigated within two perpendicular 10 km wide transects running across the urban center in north-south and east-west directions within the 6th Ring Road of the city. We recorded a total of 102 plant species in soil seed banks, including 13 tree species, 10 shrub species, and 79 herb species. We found that the soil seed bank species diversity and its similarity to that of the aboveground vegetation communities decreased significantly with the urbanization intensity. Higher urbanization intensity is typically associated with increased human management and a reduction in Greenspace Area (GSA). Soil seed bank species richness increased significantly when GSA exceeded 45 % and the similarity of species composition and diversity between soil seed banks and aboveground vegetation communities was the highest in forest parks. This suggests that habitats under forest park management are more conducive to plant regeneration. Soil seed bank species diversity first increased and then decreased significantly with increased distance to the city center, whereas the species similarity between the soil seed banks and the aboveground vegetation communities showed little change with the ring roads going out. The results of this study have important implications for further understanding the potential for urban vegetation regeneration and sustainability, which have significant implications for urban biodiversity conservation and restoration.     

How does the presence of greenspace related to physical health issues in Indonesia?

There have been many studies associating various aspects of greenspaces with physical health. Very few of these investigations are available for developing countries such as Indonesia. Our study focused on evaluating the association between greenspace and the incidence rate of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in terms of ischemic heart disease (IHD), diabetes mellitus (DM), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and chronic kidney disease (CKD). Greenspace was presented by satellite-derived normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and forest-related green cover datasets to define exposures to the resolution of 250-m. The Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation provided age and gender incident data of NCDs at the province level. A generalized additive mixed model coupled with sensitivity test was used to evaluate the exposure-outcome association. Stratified analyses were also employed. After adjusting for covariates, there was a significant negative association for incidence of NCDs and greenspace. We found that an interquartile unit increase of NDVI, and a percentage of forest were closely related to a decrease in the risk of NCDs by 0.3–9.4% and 0.6–6.2%, respectively. Stratified by exposure level, a greater effect of greenspace on reducing NCDs risk occurred in high exposure areas. Considering the socioeconomic factors, greenspace could influence on reducing NCD risks in high urbanization, low-high poverty, and low-high literacy areas. An increment unit of greenspace was associated with a decreased risk of NCDs. This study underscores important health benefits associated with exposures to nature supporting efforts to preserve greenspaces in Indonesia.     

Factors that enhance or hinder social cohesion in urban greenspaces: A literature review

Urban greenspaces--including city parks, forests, and gardens--can provide many benefits that impact human wellbeing. One such aspect of wellbeing is social cohesion, which is broadly defined as the combined reasons to stay in a particular community. Although there is an increase in studies connecting human wellbeing, social cohesion, and urban greenspace, there is limited synthesis of the three concepts. The purpose of this paper is to review how social cohesion has been used, defined, and measured in the scholarly literature. In addition, we assess the factors that hinder or enhance social cohesion in urban greenspace and opportunities for future research. We conducted a systematic literature review using the PRISMA procedures. After doing a search with keywords, we read the abstracts of 1129 articles and selected 113 that met our inclusion criteria for final in-depth analysis. We provide an overview and conceptual diagram of the factors that enhance or hinder social cohesion in urban greenspaces. Although all of the analyzed articles included social cohesion as a variable or topic of interest, only 17 of those articles clearly defined and measured social cohesion. The most impactful ways to enhance social cohesion include reducing crime, improving maintenance, and having physical space and amenities for social gatherings that cater to various demographics. Likewise, studies suggest that the perceptions of safety, level of maintenance, accessibility, and efforts to be inclusive of diverse users including cultural activities and community engagement spaces were important to social cohesion. Overall, more research is needed to better understand social cohesion and urban greenspace in developing countries, and more in-depth analysis from the perspective of diverse urban residents who use these greenspaces. The results of this study have implications for designing and managing urban greenspaces to enhance social cohesion, inclusion, and overall human wellbeing.     

Association between urban greenspace,tree canopy cover and intentional deaths: An exploratory geospatial analysis

Greenspaces can provide restorative experiences, offer opportunities for outdoor recreation, and reduce mental fatigue; all of which may improve community health and safety. Yet few studies have examined the neighborhood-level benefits of greenspace in reducing violent deaths. This study explored the association between three distinct greenspace metrics: public greenspace quantity, public greenspace accessibility, neighborhood tree canopy cover, and intentional deaths (i.e., homicides and suicides). Generalized linear models and spatial error models investigated the association between greenspace, tree canopy and intentional deaths in three geographically distinct cities in North Carolina, USA. Results revealed that increased neighborhood greenspace accessibility and tree canopy cover were associated with reduced intentional deaths in all three urban areas. Neighborhood greenspace accessibility was the most protective factor across all study areas. The association between neighborhood greenspace accessibility and intentional deaths was more significant for non-firearm deaths as compared to firearm deaths, indicating that weapon type may be an important consideration for neighborhood greenspace interventions. Compared to predominantly White neighborhoods, predominantly Black neighborhoods had higher rates of homicide in Asheville and Durham and higher rates of suicide in Charlotte. Future policy and research should focus on improving equitable access to existing and future greenspaces, especially in primarily Black neighborhoods.     

In the bleak mid-winter: The value of brownfield sites for birds during the winter

Brownfield sites (e.g., wastelands, disused industrial grounds and power stations) are valuable refuges for urban birds during the breeding season. This owes to the presence of vegetation in different stages of succession, which provide a high diversity of food and breeding resources. However, insufficient research has explored their winter value, when temperatures are lower and food is scarcer. Accordingly, 342 bird and habitat surveys were conducted in brownfield sites, and other land-uses, across Greater Manchester. Bird density estimates were then calculated using Distance software and bird-habitat associations were analysed using Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). Moreover, the impact of brownfield site development on winter bird density from 2000 to 2009 in Greater Manchester was explored using the bird density estimates, and historical image function in Google Earth. In brownfield sites, Pica pica had the highest density estimate (142 per km²), although four species had estimated densities > 100 per km² (Turdus merula; Cyanistes caeruleus; Passer domesticus; Aegithalos caudatus). The CCA indicated that Aegithalos caudatus, Cyanistes caeruleus, Parus major, Prunella modularis were associated with Fagus sylvatica, Betula pendula, and Buddleja davidii on brownfield sites, which during the winter 1) produce seeds 2) support overwintering insects, providing a valuable food source. Nevertheless, across land-uses, most species favoured green space and pre-2000 housing. Brownfield sites were most replaced between 2000 and 2009, with 17.8 km², 14.9 km², and 12 km² replaced by commercial, industrial, and post-2000 housing respectively. This is likely to have had a negative impact on the winter density of most bird species, owing to 1) the removal of brownfield site vegetation 2) increases in impervious land cover. Future declines in winter bird abundance could be mitigated by retaining brownfield site vegetation and setting aside brownfield sites in close proximity to green space and pre-2000 housing.     

Interrelationship of birds and habitat features in urban greenspaces in Delhi, India

Biodiversity conservation in urban areas has become significant not only because of increasing human population in urban centers but also because it is one of the innovative ways to conserve biodiversity as suggested by various global environmental conventions. The present study was conducted with the purpose of assessing diversity and density of bird and woody species in some greenspaces of Delhi, the rapidly urbanizing capital of India. The landscape of Delhi consists of a broad spectrum of environments ranging from the city forests to highly modified artificial landscapes in certain parks. We assessed bird and woody vegetation in 20 m×50 m belt transects in each of the 19 randomly selected greenspaces of varying size. Results exhibit a negative relationship between the density of exotic woody species and bird diversity. Specifically, Prosopis juliflora – an exotic, which was the most abundant tree in our samples – exhibited a negative relationship with bird diversity. Principal component analysis (PCA) reveals that forest-preferring bird species increase with increasing greenspaces size, shrub diversity and shrub density. We conclude that maintaining larger greenspaces with high structural diversity may be effective in maintaining plant and bird diversity in the study area.     

Implementing urban greening aid projects – The case of St. Petersburg, Russia

Recent years have seen the introduction of the concept of urban greening, defined as embracing the planning and management of all urban vegetation to create or add values to the local community. Green-space development has become recognised by international agencies and donors as important tool in improving the quality of urban livelihoods and urban environment. This paper evaluates an example of an urban greening aid project, carried out by Danish and Russian partners in the city of St. Petersburg, Russia. The project aimed to contribute to conservation and development of the cultural–historical, social and ecological values of St. Petersburg's urban green areas by implementing a structured, socially inclusive, well-informed planning and management approach. The project had three main components: (1) the development of a GIS-based information system to assist green-space planning and management; (2) on-site improvements in selected green areas and (3) awareness raising and public involvement activities. Ex post evaluation of the project showed that in spite of the limits of time and resources, important results were achieved. A more strategic approach to urban green-space planning and management, as promoted by urban greening, was adapted by some of the Russian project partners. Achievements also included notable physical improvements to one park. But the main project impacts were improved communication and collaboration between the local park department and local academia, as well as expertise developed in running a complex urban greening project. The project failed, however, in its public involvement ambitions.Moreover, the project should have facilitated discussion on some of the current premises of urban green-space planning and management in St. Petersburg, which insufficiently consider changing values and public preferences related to green spaces.     

Greening residential quarters in China: What are the roles of urban form,socioeconomic factors,and biophysical context?

Residential greenspace has great intracity variations. Its driving factors have been widely investigated in Western countries (e.g., in Europe and North America), where residential areas are mostly privately owned, but few studies have examined the determinants of residential greenspace in China, where land is owned by the government. Taking the subtropical city of Changsha, China, as an example, this study mapped the percent green cover (PGC) in residential quarters with a fine-resolution satellite image. We also investigated its driving factors measured from multisource geospatial data. The results show that (1) the PGC in the residential quarters showed great spatial variation, with an average of 36.6% (0–85.7%) and a standard deviation of 18.3%. (2) Urban form, biophysical context, and socioeconomic factors together explained 49.18% of the variation in the PGC, and they independently explained 22.87%, 11.17%, and 2.31% of the variation, respectively. (3) Residential quarter size, PGC in the surrounding buffer zone, residential quarter age, housing value, and population density significantly and positively impact the PGC, while percent building cover, floor area ratio, and distance to city center had significant negative impacts. The strongest positive and negative impacts came from PGC in the surrounding buffer zone and percent building cover, respectively. Socioeconomic factors, the dominant driving factors in Western countries, show little impact on residential PGC. These findings expand our understanding of the intracity variation in greenspace coverage and the driving factors, which sheds light on the effective planning and management of urban greenspaces in China.     

The interaction between human demand and urban greenspace supply for promoting positive emotions with sentiment analysis from twitter

Urban greenspace (UGS) plays an essential role in providing benefits to human well-being in cities. Understanding how to promote positive emotions is vital for planning and designing a UGS supply that satisfies human demand. However, little is known about the impact on human emotions of the interaction of cross-cultural demands and different greenspace supplies. This study explored different human emotions about UGS from a cross-linguistics perspective using social media data (SMD). Sentiment analysis was conducted with geolocated Twitter data from 26 UGSs in Berlin to acquire sentiment value and tweet number of tweets. The sentiments of English and German tweets in four types of UGSs were compared, and the correlations with 11 physical and activity landscape characteristics were identified. The results demonstrate that (1) sentiment value and tweet number of tweets were distinctive in the 26 greenspaces, showing different emotions responding to the different types of UGS; (2) the cross-linguistic demands were different in the comparison of English and German tweets, with the highest sentiment values in gardens and parks, respectively; and (3) the sentiment of the all, English and German tweets was respectively correlated with open space, interesting plants and swimming infrastructure. The activity landscape made the highest contributions to positive emotions even with cross-cultural differences. The results of the study suggest that human emotions can indicate whether the UGS supply meets the human demand and that specific landscape characteristics can enhance positive emotions to maintain human demand in cross-cultural background, especially considering the increasing attention to immigrants and natives. Thus, human emotions identify the interaction between UGS supply and human demand based on SMD to improve UGS outcomes for urban sustainability and public well-being.     

Greening plans as (re)presentation of the city: Toward an inclusive and gender-sensitive approach to urban greenspaces

Cities around the world are increasingly expanding their sustainability agendas and adopting urban green and blue infrastructure planning as a strategy to become more resilient, healthy and sustainable. However, the development of urban greening governance often lacks a holistic vision that considers social inequities within the planning, implementation and management of green and blue spaces. Further, gender inequities have been a specific dimension particularly overlooked in urban greening planning, despite gender concerns gaining increasing political relevance in recent years. In this research, we assessed the extento to which social and gender equity are being considered in urban greening plans and projects at the local level. We chose Barcelona (Spain) as main case study due to its pioneering role in implementing crosscutting equity and gender policies at the municipal level. Building on document analysis and semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders, we examined how social justice and gender are understood and operationalized in practice, from the design phase to implementation and maintenance of greening projects. Our findings suggest a shift in the role of urban greening which evolved from an ornamental role to a multifunctional vision of greening and is recently incorporating equity and inclusivity concerns. We identified three action areas of inclusive, gender-sensitive urban green planning practices: first, the incorporation of inclusivity and care as guiding visible values to recognize multiple needs of city residents; second, urban design for different uses and perceptions of greenspaces, particularly in relation to accessibility and autonomy; and third, the awareness and expertise from municipal staff vis-à-vis the consideration of social and gender equity in green planning and participatory approaches. Finally, we provide practical examples of the strategies that the City of Barcelona is implementing in each area and discuss some challenges and limitations, including what we identify as ad hoc intersectional greening.     

Spatial pattern of greenspace affects land surface temperature: evidence from the heavily urbanized Beijing metropolitan area, China

The urban heat island describes the phenomenon that air/surface temperatures are higher in urban areas compared to their surrounding rural areas. Numerous studies have shown that increased percent cover of greenspace (PLAND) can significantly decrease land surface temperatures (LST). Fewer studies, however, have investigated the effects of configuration of greenspace on LST. This paper aims to fill this gap using Beijing, China as a case study. PLAND along with six configuration metrics were used to measure the composition and configuration of greenspace. The metrics were calculated based on a greenspace map derived from SPOT imagery, and LST data were retrieved from Landsat TM thermal band. Ordinary least squares regression and spatial autoregression were employed to investigate the relationship between LST and spatial pattern of greenspace using the census tract as the analytical unit. The results showed that PLAND was the most important predictor of LST. A 10?% increase in PLAND resulted in approximately a 0.86?°C decrease in LST. Configuration of greenspace also significantly affected LST. Given a fixed amount of greenspace, LST increased significantly with increased patch density. In addition, the variance of LST was largely explained by both composition and configuration of greenspace. The unique variation explained by the composition was relatively small, and was close to that of the configuration. Results from this study can expand our understanding of the relationship between LST and vegetation, and provide insights for improving urban greenspace planning and management.