Farmers’ objectives toward their woodlands in the upper Midwest of the United States: implications for woodland volumes and diversity

This paper reports the results of a study that explores the relationship between farm woodland owners’ stated intentions for owning woodland, and the structure and composition of these woodlands in the states of Illinois, Indiana and Iowa in the upper Midwest of the United States. Data from two sample-based inventories conducted by the USDA Forest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program were combined for this analysis—the FIA forest resources inventory and the National Woodland Owner Survey (NWOS). We looked for relationships between product value and investment in woodlands, as reflected in volumes and tree quality. We also examined whether measures of diversity reflected specific management focus. Our results partially supported our hypotheses. Woodland-focused ownership reasons were found to have larger volumes and individual tree sizes. We found that a passive woodland ownership reason—that woods were “part of the farm”—generally had lower volumes per hectare. Although we were not able to differentiate between different forest product classes and measures of volume, we did find that those landowners who harvested veneer had more volume than those who harvested for firewood. Woodland owners who salvage-harvested their woodlands—a harvesting reason that is more reactive than proactive—exhibited lower volumes per hectare than those who harvested for more proactive, product-focused reasons. Biodiversity was also found to be related to the ownership focus and harvest intent. Generally, there was lower diversity in overstory species when the woodland was viewed merely as “part of the farm,” when the product harvested was fence posts and when timber was harvested for salvage or land clearing. The small sample size limits our analysis, but we can conclude that focusing the woodland owners on management of their woodlands—regardless of what the specific management goals might be—should increase productivity and biodiversity of those woodlands.

SWOT analyses and SWOT strategy formulation for forest owner cooperations in Austria

Forest owner cooperations (FOC) are bundling wood supply from small-scale forests and some also offer additional services, such as wood harvesting or planting. FOCs are growing throughout Europe in terms of the managed timber volume. The increasing timber demand of forest-based industries as well as the new, rapidly growing demand for energy plants could lead to an under-supply in the following years in Europe. Because of high harvesting arrears in small-scale forests, FOCs are seen as an opportunity to overcome this foreseen timber shortage. The paper maps out timber mobilisation strategies using the SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) approach.

Challenges of Socio-economically Evaluating Wildfire Management on Non-industrial Private and Public Forestland in the Western United States

Non-industrial private forests (NIPFs) and public forests in the United States generate many non-market benefits for landholders and society generally. These values can be both enhanced and diminished by wildfire management. This paper considers the challenges of supporting economically efficient allocation of wildfire suppression resources in a social cost-benefit analysis framework when non-market values are important. These challenges include substantial gaps in scientific understanding about how the spatial and temporal provision of non-market values are affected by wildfire, the limited utility of benefit transfer in wildfire assessment, a lack of studies that have estimated marginal willingness-to-pay to conserve non-market values, violation of consumer budget constraints, and the infeasibility of valuing indigenous cultural heritage. These challenges present serious impediments to adapting price-based decision-support tools to accommodate non-market values and support decision-making consistent with contemporary federal wildfire policy. Departure from the historic range and variability of ecological conditions is proposed as a complementary framework to support wildfire management decisions when non-market values are important on NIPF and public forestland.

Social and ecological issues for private native forestry in north-eastern New South Wales,Australia

Forests in north-eastern New South Wales have often been the focus of controversy. The tension between production and preservation continues and hampers current negotiations for a code of practice for private native forestry. The structure of many private forests reflects past mismanagement, and silvicultural intervention would benefit both conservation and production objectives, but such intervention is rarely financially viable. This paper sets out the economic and ecological basis for private native forestry. Both the timber industry and nature-based tourism are major contributors to the local economy, and both rely in part on private native forests. Draft regulations currently under negotiation do not offer incentives for improved private forest management.

Private Native Forestry in NSW: Environmentally Benign,Economically Important but Silviculturally Challenged?

With large areas of public native forests now converted into National Parks and unavailable for timber harvest, private native forests (PNF) in New South Wales (NSW) are becoming increasingly important in providing timber for the wood processing industry. At the same time, there is increasing interest in the role that these private forests play in providing and maintaining habitat for wildlife. Historically, timber production from these forests has been opportunistic, with little or no silviculture to maintain wood production potential. Market circumstances and policy settings have not favoured sound silvicultural practice, generating an exploitative and short-term view of the timber resource to maximise short-term returns. This has occurred at a time when these forests are an important and increasing source of log supply to industry. This paper discusses payment of biodiversity credits (incentives) to improve both environmental management and timber production outcomes, and examines the findings of some recent studies on the ‘sustainability’ of PNF. Willingness-to-pay (WTP) and willingness-to-supply studies reveal a disparity between the demand and supply prices for biodiversity and habitat ‘services’ in many cases. Recent ‘sustainability’ studies indicate forestry operations are relatively benign in their impacts on biodiversity, compared to other land uses. However, in the absence of increased financial returns from PNF and in the face of increased public demand for greater environmental outcomes, there seems little alternative to meeting the competing demands of biodiversity and timber production than to implement a system of incentive payments which reward sound private forest management for a multiplicity of objectives.

Towards a Taxonomy of Forest Goods and Services

In light of the increasing realisation of the importance of all forest resources, the dichotomisation of forest resources into timber and non-timber is proving to be overly simplistic. Furthermore, at present there is no satisfactory operational definition for non-wood forest products and considering the tremendous variety of forest products it may be doubted that such a definition is possible. This paper examines this inadequacy and its consequences for a productive, holistic approach to the analysis of forest resources and their management. In an attempt to address these problems, a system for dealing with forest resources in a more meaningful, holistic manner is proposed. A clear distinction is made between systems of terms for classification, and terms used for comparison, of forest products. Classifying terms distinguish between classes or groups of objects with similar characteristics while comparative terms serve to highlight differences. Definitions are best served by classifying terms and this paper proposes both logical targets for definitions of forest products and a pragmatic typology for such products.

Influence of knot area ratio based grading rules on the engineering properties of Hem-fir used in Japanese post and beam housing

A study has been conducted to establish the influence of knot area ratio based grading rules on the bending properties of full size Hem-fir (Western Hemlock and Amabilis fir) timber used in Japanese post and beam building construction. Bending strength and modulus of elasticity test results and out turn information on the 105×105 mm², 90×90 mm², 45×105 mm², 30×105 mm², and 45×90 mm² specimens are presented in this paper. The in-grade test results indicate that the knot area ratio based grading rules can be successfully applied to the Hem-fir timber.

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The potential of auctioning contracts for conservation policy

This article studies the possibility of using auctions as a policy instrument in conservation programs. In particular, it provides insight into the main concerns that need to be dealt with when implementing conservation auctions. To show the cost saving potential of this policy instrument, we also calculate the social welfare improvement that can be obtained for an afforestation project in Flanders. When developing conservation policies, it is thus worthwhile to consider auctions as an alternative policy instrument.

Generalized allometric volume and biomass equations for some tree species in Europe

Since biomass is one of the key variables in ecosystem studies, widespread effort has aimed to facilitating its estimation. Numerous stand-specific volume and biomass equations are available, but these cannot be used for scaling up biomass to the regional level where several age-classes and structural types of stands coexist. Therefore simplified generalized volume and biomass equations are needed. In the present study, generalized biomass and volume regression equations were developed for the main tree species in Europe. These equations were based on data compiled from several published studies and are syntheses of the published equations. The results show that these generalized equations explain 64–99% of the variation in values predicted by the original published equations, with higher values for stem than for crown components.

Adaptation to Change and Re-designing of Governance Systems: Cases from Small-Scale Rural Forestry

Changes in small-scale forest governance as a reaction to global changes are viewed from the system dynamics perspective, focused on two levels of dynamic systems: the policy system with sets of interactions at the national level and the management system at the local level. These interactions are considered through permanent adaptation and re-shaping of stakeholders’ networks and positions provoking further changes in the systems. Empirical evidence has been obtained from two case studies related to small-scale rural forestry in distinct contexts—France (the Territorial Forestry Charters) and Kyrgyzstan (collaborative forest management and leasing of forest plots)—and viewed through a theoretical framework of social-political systems dynamics. The changes caused by the systems’ capacity for adaptability and resilience are expressed through a double spiral of decision-making, characterising the interactions between national policies and local management practices. The analysis leads to a conclusion that changes are basically determined by the formal and informal stakeholders’ strategies developed in a specific context and their mutual adaptation aimed at system resilience.

How to foster good husbandry of private native forests

It is generally agreed that effective conservation requires the cooperation of private landholders to complement reserve-based efforts, but there is little agreement about how this can best be achieved. Various stakeholders lobby for tough regulations, for greater landholder freedom, and for incentives for activities or outcomes. A review of these alternatives suggests an emerging consensus that incentives are the most effective approach. Policy-makers should consider incentive-based approaches such as stewardship support to foster conservation outcomes on private lands.

Carbon inventory methods and carbon mitigation potentials of forests in Europe: a short review of recent progress

The role of European forests and forest management in the carbon balance has received much attention in research recently. This was particularly motivated by the recognition of forest management as one possible measure countries may adopt in the framework of the Kyoto Protocol to reduce the concentration of greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere. The main method to assess carbon budget in forests is based on traditional forest inventories. This method requires the conversion of measured stem volume to carbon pools. This conversion has been identified as a large source of uncertainty in past assessments. Over the last 5 years, intensive research efforts have resulted in significant advances in the reliability of forest inventory based carbon budgets. In parallel, the impact of forest management on the carbon balance of forest ecosystems has been investigated and the carbon mitigation potential of these activities has been analysed. This paper reviews the progress that was made in these two fields of research with a particular focus on European forests.

From Framework to Forest Activities: A Comparative Analysis of Different Ownership Types in Two Adjacent Regions

The paper examines the interactions between the demands of society, the restrictions due to recreational and protective functions of forests and the intensity and kind of forest management in the various ownership classes in Switzerland (CH) and Baden–Württemberg (BW) in south–west Germany. A survey was carried out among owners of communal forests, private forest landholders owning more than 200 ha of forest land and small-scale forest enterprises with up to 200 ha of forest land. The survey adopted a two-dimensional approach, using regions and comparable ownership classes in order to identify basic differences and underlying key drivers. It became obvious that there are relevant distinctions between the two countries. The paper highlights the present use of forests, the restrictions perceived by their owners, and the underlying management strategies in terms of structure of the forests, tree species composition and thinning activities. In BW the financial function is the dominant motivation for the majority of the private owners. The communities emphasize both timber and non-timber functions of their forests. Except for the protection function (avalanches, rockslides) the utilisation and importance of the forest in CH is lower than in BW. Profitability of forests continues to be a key-driver of intensity of forest management activities, but there is less influence on the choice of basic silvicultural strategies. The results of this comparative survey are placed in the context of a forest policy framework and the medium-term financial situation in the two countries.

Effects of management techniques on the establishment of eucalypt seedlings on farmland: a review

Research into the effects of seven management techniques on survival and growth of eucalypt seedlings planted on farmland is reviewed. The techniques include: pre- and post-planting weed control; soil cultivation; fertiliser; mulch; tree guards/shelters; and irrigation. The initial and ongoing effects of each technique are discussed—including the effects of timing, type and quantity. Consideration is given to site, species and climatic influences. A statistical analysis of the published survival rates is then presented, to provide information on the relative importance of, and interactions between, practices. The analysis shows that maximum survival may be achieved by using one or two management techniques. Combining this result with the insights gained from the review suggests that the use of soil cultivation and post-planting weed control are likely to achieve the greatest improvements in early eucalypt survival and growth.

Sustainability Attributes of a Small-Scale Betel Leaf Agroforestry System: A Case Study in North-eastern Hill Forests of Bangladesh

The Khasia ethnic community of Bangladesh has been a population of forest villagers in the north-eastern hill forests of Bangladesh since the early 1950s, practicing a betel leaf-based agroforestry system on land granted by the Forest Department. Taking a sample forest village of the Sylhet forest division as a case study, this article examines the sustainability attributes of betel leaf production in the agroforestry system. The presence of several positive attributes of sustainability including the composition of agroforestry, disease control, soil fertility management, profitability, socio-cultural acceptability and institutional support indicate that betel leaf production within the agroforestry system is stable under the prevailing traditional management system. Income from the sale of betel leaf is the principal livelihood means and villager’s reciprocal contributions help to conserve forest resources. However, problems with land ownership and regular agreement renewal need to be resolved for the sake of their livelihoods and forest conservation.

Fracture of air-dried and fully saturated parallel strand lumber (PSL) under impact loading

The behaviour of air-dried and fully saturated parallel strand lumber (PSL) was determined under both static and impact loading. It was found that the moisture content had a significant effect on peak stress and deformation, stress rate, time to failure, and fracture energy. In addition, the results from this study were combined with those from previous studies in order to obtain a more general relationship between strength and stress rate for air-dried PSL.

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Public cost-sharing in private forest investments in Finland 1983–2000

A model of public cost-sharing in private forest investment is proposed to describe the substitution between the private financing of investments and public investment assistance. The substitution depends on the curvature conditions of the forest investment function on forest stock. When the second-order investment effects are close to zero or when they do not exist, the funding substitution will not take place. A simultaneous econometric model for private and public funding employing forest incomes, forest income taxes, interest rates, investment scale and market wood price expectations as exogenous variables is estimated. The model estimation based on Finnish regional data in 1983–2000 rejects the substitution alternative. A 10% increase in private investment funding increases the demand for public funding at the same rate, but a 10% increase in public funds will increase the private funds supply by 2.5%. Significant income effects are found only in the case of private funding. In northern Finland, the scale effects are large for public financial assistance. The effects of the income tax reform on the private supply of funds are positive, especially for the new wood-sales profit taxation, whereas the interest rate and price expectation effects are negative.

Valuing the benefits to the local community of supplying recreational facilities in community owned forests: an application of the contingent behaviour method

This research utilises a contingent behaviour valuation technique to value a number of improvements to recreational facilities in small-scale forests in Ireland. Willingness-to-pay estimates have previously been made for Coillte (Ireland’s state-owned forestry company) trails and forests. The total non-market value of Irish forests has also been examined. This paper adds to the literature by being the first to estimate the consumer surplus associated with recreational enhancements to Irish small-scale forest resources. The results presented indicate that community owned small-scale forestry can contribute enormously to the wellbeing of nearby urban residents, through the provision of outdoor recreational services.

Biomass expansion factors for Sitka spruce (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Picea sitchensis</Emphasis> (Bong.) Carr.) in Ireland

The assessment of a forest resource in national inventories provides a firm basis for the calculation of biomass and carbon (C) stocks of forests. Biomass expansion factors (BEFs) and conversion factors provide a robust and simple method of converting from forest tree stem volume to total forest biomass. These factors should be constructed on the basis of nationally specific data in order to take account of regional differences in growth rates, management practices, etc. The objective of this study is to improve the accuracy of biomass estimation by calculating a range of age-dependant BEFs from representative data that more accurately describe the allometry of present forests. The results from this study show that the allocation of biomass to compartments in forest stands and throughout a rotation varies considerably, and that the use of BEFs for the calculation of C stocks in forests of sub-timber dimensions is highly impractical.

Climatic Drivers of Revegetation Management Practices in Australia: Analysis of a Social Survey

Investment in small and large-scale revegetation in Australia is growing in response to concerns regarding the sustainability and productivity of agricultural landscapes. Site preparation and management––such as soil cultivation, weed control, fertilising, mulching, use of treeguards and watering––are major costs associated with small-scale revegetation. The aim of this study has been to investigate local revegetation knowledge and practices to determine the usefulness of each management practice for achieving success and to determine whether some practices are more suited to particular climatic zones. A national online revegetation survey was conducted to ascertain current small-scale revegetation practices and the factors that drive these choices. Management practices were found to be strongly associated with climate. Mulch, fertiliser, weed control and watering were applied more frequently in higher rainfall and higher temperature zones. Soil cultivation and treeguards were used more frequently in lower rainfall and lower temperature zones. These findings suggest that there may be some benefit in modifying existing revegetation guidelines to reflect climatic zones and management flexibility.