Poverty,Innovation Capacity,and State Economic Development in the Knowledge Economy: Evidence from the U.S.

We examine poverty's effect in two ways. First, we study the relationship between poverty and capacity for innovation in the U.S. states; second, we study the combined effects of poverty and innovation capacity on U.S. state economic output and employment. Because many of the relationships among poverty, innovation capacity and economic performance are simultaneous, we employ the Arellano Bond Difference GMM estimator to estimate various models using panel data (1980–1999). The findings reveal a negative indirect effect of socio‐economic need (poverty) on human and U.S. state and local financial innovation capacity, though there is no empirical link between poverty and federal financial capacity. We find no statistically significant evidence of the contemporaneous effect of poverty on state economic performance, holding innovation capacity constant. This suggests that poverty primarily affects state economic performance indirectly through reduction of innovation capacity. Overall, our findings suggest that U.S. officials ought to be concerned about the role poverty plays in diminishing their state economies' capacity to innovate.     

Poverty and livelihoods after full‐time farming: A South‐East Asian view

Abstract: Drawing on Harold Brookfield's seminal interventions on intensification and disintensification in tropical agriculture, the paper argues that a de‐linking of poverty and livelihoods in rural areas from farming and agricultural resources is occurring in rural South‐East Asia. This is often driven as much by changes in lifestyles and life views than by economic and environmental imperatives. The paper proposes that farming is in the process of losing its resonance and significance for the rural poor. Emerging patterns of change in the South‐East Asian countryside are used to construct a generalised framework of agrarian transition where the current trend towards pluriactivity is likely to be replaced by a mixed landscape of agrarian entrepreneurs, neopeasants and remnant smallholders. The paper concludes by reflecting on the implications of this trajectory for understanding poverty and pro‐poor interventions in the countryside.     

Managing risk and vulnerability in Asia: A (re)study from Thailand, 1982–83 and 2008

In the 1980s, rural settlements in the Northeast of Thailand were farming focused, and strategies of living were structured around the need to secure subsistence in the face of a capricious environment and a weak developmental state. More than half of households in the region lived below the poverty line, and the immediate prospects for ‘development’ were not bright. Drawing on a 25‐year longitudinal study of two villages in Mahasarakham, the paper describes and reflects on how risk and vulnerability have been re‐shaped during a quarter of a century of profound economic and social change. From largely environmental and local, the pattern of risk and opportunity have become increasingly economic and non‐local as external events wash across the shores of rural settlements like Ban Non Tae and Ban Tha Song Korn.     

Protected Area Designation,Natural Amenities,and Rural Development of Forested Counties in the Continental United States

Policy makers who wish to spur economic development in rural forests face challenges that include population decline and poverty. Protected land and natural amenities enhance the quality of life and prospects for economic development, but there is limited research on how different types of protected land or natural amenities affect the rural forest economy. We use county level variables for protected areas differentiated by access and extractive use, and natural amenities differentiated by climate, water area, and topography to explain spatial variation in labor and built space markets. Results show that temperate summers and water area increase wages and housing prices and explain more than 30 percent of the spatial differences in wages, housing price, employment density, built space percent, human capital, and local road density. Protected area decreases wages, but, if open access, increase housing prices and human capital and explain more than 20 percent of the spatial differences in human capital, built space percent, and local road density.     

Rural‐to‐Urban Commuting: Three Degrees of Integration

Commuting ties between rural places of residence and urban places of employment are among the most visible forms of rural–urban integration. For some rural areas, access to urban employment is a key source of population retention and growth. However, this access varies considerably across rural areas, with distance representing a primary deterrent. In addition to distance, the size of the urban community will also influence rural‐to‐urban commuting opportunities. In this paper, using Canadian data, we empirically estimated the influence of local rural population and job growth on rural out‐commuting within the urban hierarchy. We find consistent support for the deconcentration hypothesis where population moves to rural areas for lifestyle and quality of life reasons, while retaining urban employment. Further, we find some evidence that in addition to distance from the nearest urban center being a deterrent, increased remoteness from the top of the urban hierarchy exerts a positive influence on out‐commuting. Recognition of these types of rural–urban linkages through commuting is essential in designing Canadian rural policy and targeted programs that may effectively support local rural populations. In particular, they point to the need to have reasonable transportation infrastructure for urban accessibility, which should be complemented by other “built” infrastructure to improve the livability of rural communities.     

Shaping the Rural–Urban Symbiosis: Density,Dispersal, Remoteness,and Town Size in South‐East Australia

Within the context of economic and social change in rural Australia, this paper identifies four structural dimensions of non‐metropolitan communities that are shown to influence a range of areal and socio‐demographic characteristics. The analysis shows that such influence is essentially maintained whether the social catchments forming the database are subdivided by State or by an equivalent number of landscape types. Also, although the dimensions influence both the urban and dispersed elements of the communities, the strength of the relationships is substantially greater if those elements are considered as a symbiotic whole. Throughout, net rural local density (as opposed to gross density) is shown to be a consistently important dimension of rural communities in relatively sparsely settled lands such as those of south‐eastern Australia, supported by the important subsidiary influence of relative settlement dispersal and town size. The paper concludes with a discussion of the processes involved in the impact of those structural dimensions upon rural society.     

Does Commuting Reduce Wage Disparities?

ABSTRACT This paper shows that in the Baltic countries, commuting reduces urban‐rural wage and employment disparities and increases national output. To quantify the effect of commuting on wage differentials, two sets of earnings functions are estimated (based on Estonian, Latvian, and Lithuanian Labor Force Surveys) with location variables (capital city, rural, etc.) measured at the workplace and at the place of residence. We find that the ceteris paribus wage gap between capital city and rural areas, as well as between capital and other cities is significantly narrowed by commuting in some cases but remains almost unchanged in others. Different outcomes are explained by country‐specific spatial patterns of commuting, educational and occupational composition of commuting flows, and presence or absence of wage discrimination against rural residents in urban markets. A treatment effects model is used to estimate individual wage gains to rural—urban or inter‐city commuting; these gains are substantial in most but not all cases. Wage effects of commuting distance, as well as impact of education, gender, ethnicity, and local labor market conditions on the commuting decision are also explored.     

Commuting distances to local non‐farm workplaces and out‐migration: The case of Northeast Thailand

The relationship between commuting distances and where people work has been studied for urban contexts in both developed countries and developing countries. However, few studies have examined the situation in rural areas, and none look at commuting distances to non‐farm workplaces in rural areas of developing countries. This paper investigates how commuting distance, and thus accessibility, to local non‐farm work influences non‐farm employment and out‐migration from rural villages in Northeast Thailand. The main issues examined are: (i) the distance that rural residents travel to work in local non‐farm jobs; and (ii) the influence that local non‐farm employment has on the number of outmigrants from rural villages. The study finds: (i) distance between villages and non‐farm work sites impact the number of villagers who are employed in regular wage work; (ii) beyond 20 km villagers are less likely to travel to non‐farm employment using their own means of transportation; and (iii) employment in regular wage work decreases outmigration. The findings from this study contribute to the debates over the drivers of rural out‐migration, rural livelihood changes, and agrarian changes that are taking place in Southeast Asia.     

暂时贫困人口问题研究

目前,在中国存在数量较多收入徘徊在贫困线上、且缺乏有效的脱贫手段的群体,在中国区域、城乡之间,暂时贫困率存在显著差异。通过对于中国健康与营养调查(CHNS)数据的研究与分析,对上述假设进行了检验。结果表明：（1）在CHNS的有效样本中,25.87%的家庭出现了暂时贫困状况,远大于样本中出现的贫困率与长期贫困率;（2）就区域、城乡比较而言,经济落后地区与农村地区的暂时贫困率要高于发达地区与城市地区。依据该研究结果提出政策建议：加大“能力扶贫”的力度,特别是对于贫困人群初、中级应用技术、技能的免费培训工作;继续推进各项一体化政策,重点关注欠发达地区、农村地区的经济发展。     

Beyond large‐city‐centred urbanisation: in situ transformationof rural areas in Fujian Province

This paper explores China’s in situ urbanisation and its implications for the paradigm of extended metropolitan areas. Based on preliminary results of the 2000 census, field surveys and interviews, government statistics and documents, and direct observation in Fujian Province of China, a region without much influence of mega‐cities, the analysis shows that in situ urbanisation resulting from the transformation of rural settlements has played an important role since the 1980s. The paper examines major factors contributing to the process of in situ urbanisation, especially the development of township and village enterprises, government policies and foreign investment. Some underlying conditions, such as local historical and geographical conditions and cultural characteristics, high population density and improvement in transport and communications, are also discussed, and the future prospect of the urbanisation pattern in the context of local economic restructuring and urbanisation strategies in the new century is gauged. The paper also assesses the relevance of the paradigm of extended metropolitan areas to the urbanisation pattern, and suggests the need for a conceptual framework focusing on the urbanisation process resulting from bottom‐up rural developments.     

Urban Governance in Africa Today: Reframing,Experiences, and Lessons

Progress in analysing the instrumental view of governance as an engine for growth, poverty reduction, and inclusive development has been held back by the difficulty in framing governance. This essay seeks to address this problem by 1) reframing urban governance 2) evaluating its aims, processes, and outcomes, and 3) explaining those outcomes on the basis of which some lessons are teased out. Using examples from Africa and an institutional political economy approach (based on institutional economics, Marxist political economics, Georgist political economics, and Polanyian political economy), I show that, overall, while urban economies are growing; both urban poverty and inequality levels have risen substantially. Urban governance has paved the way for new forms of urban development that only benefit the few. Not only are there differences in how urban services and resources are experienced, accessed, and controlled but the varieties are also socially differentiated. I argue that the underlying reasons for this disjuncture between “urban governance” in theory and “actually existing urban governance” are 1) difficulties in implementing urban governance theory consistently in practice, 2) problems arising because urban governance theory has been implemented in practice, 3) tensions that would entangle most policies which do not address historical and structural economic issues, 4) restrictive assumptions, and 5) incoherence among the different dimensions of urban governance. To resolve these contradictions, I put the case for major structural and institutional change involving: 1) the re‐ordering of the roles of the state, market, and society as institutions of change; 2) re‐working the relationships that bind together land, labour, capital, and the state, and 3) re‐organising the channels for keeping the attainment of the ends of urban governance in check.     

经济林产业巩固拓展脱贫成效的政策探讨

研究旨在总结经济林产业扶贫的主要成效,发现问题,提出发挥经济林产业巩固拓展脱贫攻坚成效重要作用的政策建议。通过数据收集分析和对山西、四川和云南3省6县的实地调研发现,经济林产业扶贫成效显著,成为农民收入的主要来源,促进了农民就业和美丽乡村建设。然而,脱贫地区的经济林产业还存在规划落实不到位、栽培品种混杂、管理措施粗放、加工存储产业滞后和科技支撑力度不够等突出问题。针对以上问题,从加强对经济林产业的宏观指导、强化科技支撑和技术推广、积极拓展林业产业政策、提升产业发展的组织化品牌化水平和积极培育流通体系等方面提出建议,为更好发展林业特色产业、巩固拓展脱贫攻坚成效、全面推进乡村振兴提供政策参考。     

Spatial-temporal Patterns and Evolution History of Rural Settlements from the Perspective of Inheritance——A Case Study of Lianzhou City,Guangdong Province

Formation and evolution of rural settlement patterns in Lianzhou City,Guangdong Province were analyzed from the perspective of space and time,on the basis of its gazetteer and relevant historical data.The results show that Lianzhou was first founded in the sixth year of Yuanding Period of the Western Han Dynasty,and its development could be roughly classified into 6 stages according to the construction of south–north traffic lines and regional development progress,and it witnessed the fastest development in the Ming and Qing Dynasty.In terms of spatial distribution,rural settlements in the local area show spatial continuity,Lianzhou Town is the core of rural settlement growth in the city,and towns with the most concentrated rural settlements in all stages are located in central-west and northeast parts of the city,and those with lower density of rural settlements are mostly located in minority regions in the north and mountainous areas in the east.On the basis of the above facts,the paper studies the influence of natural geological conditions,immigrant,traffic,economic development and ethnic composition on the establishment and development of rural settlements in Lianzhou City.     

贵州高原岩溶山区农业现代化建设的对策和思路

（1河南农业大学资源与环境学院，郑州 450002；2贵州师范大学资源与环境科学系，贵阳 550001）     

Community Level Multipliers for Rural Development Initiatives

ABSTRACT The success of economic development initiatives in achieving a significant and sustained improvement for a target area is strongly influenced by the size of the local multiplier. New economic activity is generally site specific and the proportion of spending and re-spending that generates local multiplier effect will vary with the hierarchical level of community in which the activity is located. Leakages in the form of outshopping by community residents and expenditures in the community that constitute payments to agents outside the home community are estimated for communities in six functional levels that, combined, represent the complete trade center hierarchy in Saskatchewan. The resulting multipliers are found to vary with functional level, with the smallest communities having the smallest multipliers. When rural areas are being targeted for economic development, more rural economic activity can be generated by focusing on relatively large rural communities.     

The geography of the wages: Chinese cities 1989 and 1997

Improving national average income and reducing regional income inequality often serve as dual goals of economic development in a country. After over twenty years of economic reforms, China has been fairly successful in achieving the first goal, but failed in the second. This paper uses recent data with a sharper resolution to examine the variation of average wages across Chinese cities 1989–1997. Widening wage inequalities across cities are observed during the period. This research also seeks to explain the variation of wages between cities by factors such as agglomeration (density and city size), location advantages (distances from central cities and from the coastline), educational attainment, industrial structure and administrative hierarchy. Many of the factors are found to be important in explaining wage differences in Western countries but are yet to be tested in China. Some factors such as distance from the coast, industrial structure and administrative hierarchy are considered because of China’s unique social and economic systems.     

Remoteness and rural development: economic impacts of rural roads on upland farmers in Sarawak,Malaysia

>Although Sarawak has a rapidly growing economy, the benefits of growth have been focused largely in the urban centres. However, the majority of the population lives in rural areas, where poverty, although on the decline, prevails. Attention is given to the role of rural roads in countering remoteness and, hence, promoting more equitable development. To assess the impact of rural roads, two roads were used for comparison. One provided Iban communities with access to Betong, a small district town. The other provided Bidayuh communities with access to Kuching, the capital city. This paper focuses on three economic impacts of roads – agricultural production, employment, and household income. Findings show that the impact of roads varied within an area (a function of remoteness) and between areas (also a function of remoteness). Impacts were considerably greater when roads provided communities with access to a major urban centre compared with a small town. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to the government's strategy of rural development.     

State Policies,Enterprise Dynamism,and Innovation System in Shanghai,China

ABSTRACT Today rapidly growing economies depend more on the creation, acquisition, distribution, and use of knowledge. As such, strategies for enhancing research and innovation capabilities have come to occupy a more important position in many developing nations, including China. Already the leading production center, and often seen as China's economic locomotive, Shanghai is striving aggressively to retain its national preeminence and has launched concerted efforts to increase local innovative output. The primary purpose of this paper is to understand how state‐led efforts have fared in promoting technology innovation. By situating the city in the national and global context, the paper shows that Shanghai has gained a substantial lead in developing an innovation environment with extensive global linkages and leading research institutions. Recent efforts in building up the research and innovation capacity of the enterprise sector have begun to show progress. Although firms are enthusiastic about its future as an innovation center, Shanghai continues to face challenges of inadequate protection of intellectual property, lack of venture capital investment, and the tightening supply of highly qualified knowledge workers.     

后旅游扶贫时代的乡村旅游探析

旅游业作为第三产业的领军行业,已逐渐显示出它在国民经济增长中的巨大作用。随着中国工业化、城市化进程的发展,越来越多的人选择到乡村去旅游,这是人们释放心理压力、回归大自然的需求,因此乡村旅游发展异常迅速。乡村旅游可以促进当地经济发展,促使国民收入再分配,调整当地产业结构,提高农民生活水平,基于此,旅游扶贫成为政府和学者们研究的又一方向和课题。纵览大部分学者的研究成果,多是探讨了扶贫的意义、作用和战略等,也提到开发中应注意的一些问题,但是认为学者们多是研究旅游扶贫的前期问题,却忽略了一个问题,这就是：后旅游扶贫时代乡村旅游的发展。当农村居民脱贫致富之后,他们的消费观念将直接影响乡村旅游的发展。     

Voter‐Approved Annexations in an Urban Growth Boundary Regime: The Impacts on Housing Values,Density, and Economic Equity

Oregon is known for its strict Urban Growth Boundary (UGB) policies. While UGBs are designed to accommodate land supply for 20 years of growth, land within UGBs must be annexed into city limits before it can be developed at urban densities and serviced. In Oregon, cities use a variety of municipal annexation and voter‐approved annexation policies (VAAPs), providing an opportunity to study how different annexation policies affect land and housing markets, and affect urban density. Previous research on annexation has not considered how annexation policy influences housing values. This paper examines how VAAPs impact land growth, housing development, and density at the city level. It also examines how VAAPs impact housing values. Based on city‐level and tax‐lot‐level statistical analyses from 107 cities outside Portland Metro area, the results suggest that VAAPs negatively impact the availability of developable land within city limits. VAAPs also positively impact residential density and housing value. Lastly, VAAPs inequitably affect housing value between relatively high‐value housing and relatively low‐value housing, posing economic equity impacts for lower value housing. These findings provide important lessons for Oregon and other states. While VAAPs may increase residential density in cities, the policies may exacerbate affordability problems.