Dissolved organic matter originating from the riparian shrub Salix gracilistyla

To estimate the importance of leaching of dissolved organic matter (DOM) as a pathway through which organic matter is supplied to stream ecosystems, we examined the amount of leachate over time and chemical properties of DOM leached from leaves in different conditions. The samples used were green leaves, yellow senescent leaves, and leaf litter of Salix gracilistyla Miq., which is the dominant riparian plant species in the middle reaches of rivers in western Japan. We analyzed dissolved organic carbon (DOC), total sugar, and polyphenol in the leachate of leaf samples collected from a fluvial bar in the middle reaches of the Ohtagawa River in Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan. Considerable leaching of DOC from senescent leaves [37.3 mg g⁻¹ dry weight (dw) leaf] and leaf litter (8.1 mg g⁻¹ dw leaf) occurred within 24 h after immersion. In contrast, DOC leached from green leaves was negligible until 1 week after leaf immersion. Carbon loss of leaves by leaching within 24 h after leaf immersion was estimated to be less than 8%, suggesting that leaching of DOC from S. gracilistyla leaves is a minor pathway through which organic matter is supplied to stream ecosystems. DOM leached from the leaves included sugar and polyphenol, which were among the major chemical forms of DOM leached from the leaves (based on the molecular mass). In a laboratory experiment in which the difference in the stability of DOM between the chemical forms was examined, sugar decomposed more rapidly than polyphenol.     

Adsorption by coniferous leaves of chromium ions from effluent

The chromium adsorption ability of leaves from 34 conifer species were examined. Among them, deciduous conifer species, such asLarix, Ginkgo, Metasequia, andTaxodium, showed high ability to adsorb chromium ions. Factors affecting chromium adsorption were studied using larch (Larix leptolepis) leaves to determine the optimum adsorption conditions. The factors included solution pH, contact time, temperature, and the initial concentration of chromium ions. Maximum adsorption for Cr³⁺ was observed at pH 5, and maximum Cr⁶⁺ adsorption occurred at pH 3. The amount of Cr⁶⁺ adsorbed on the adsorbent increased rapidly during the first 4 h, then gradually increased, and finally reached equilibrium in 16 h. The adsorption rate of Cr³⁺ was somewhat slower than that of Cr⁶⁺. The adsorption isotherm for Cr⁶⁺ adsorption was composed of two straight lines, suggesting that the adsorbent could not practically reduce the concentration of Cr⁶⁺ in solution below 1.6 mg Cr/L Column experiments using larch leaf packing suggested that the practical operation could be controlled by monitoring the effluent pH.     

An efficient micropropagation system for Celastrus paniculatus Willd.: a vulnerable medicinal plant

A micropropagation protocol was developed for Celastrus paniculatus, a vulnerable medicinal plant. Cultures were initiated from nodal explants collected from young shoots of a 12-year-old plant in MS basal medium. An average of five shoots were produced in MS medium supplemented with 1.5 mg l⁻¹ benzyl adenine (BA) and 0.1 mg l⁻¹ naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) after two subculture cycles with a 30-day interval. Continuous subculture in the same medium for three more cycles resulted in reduction of the number of multiple shoots (2 or 3 shoots), vitrification of the shoots, and callus formation. Vitrification of cultures could be overcome by the use of MS medium supplemented with lower concentrations of BA (0.05 mg l⁻¹) and NAA (0.01 mg l⁻¹). Among the various rooting trials, ex vitro rooting of shoots with simultaneous hardening was most efficient. The method standardized in the present study is simple, as it eliminated separate steps for in vitro rooting and hardening. Qualitative chemical similarity of the tissue culture regenerants with the mother plant was confirmed using high performance thin-layer chromatographic (HPTLC) profiling.     

Phosphorus supply and cycling at long-term forest monitoring sites in Germany

In this study, the supply and input–output balances of phosphorus (P) were investigated for a 10-year-period at 85 long-term monitoring sites in German forest ecosystems under the European Level II programme. These sites encompass 23 European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) stands, 9 oak stands comprised of common oak (Quercus robur L.) and/or sessile oak (Quercus petraea Liebl.), 20 Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and 33 Norway spruce (Picea abies H.Karst.) stands. We quantified P concentrations in needles and leaves, P inputs from the atmosphere, P outputs through leaching and harvesting, and total P in the soil and humus layers. The P concentrations in European beech leaves from two sites (>1 mg P g⁻¹ dry weight), and in Norway spruce needles from four sites (>1.2 mg P g⁻¹ dry weight), were deficient over several years. In contrast, the oak and Scots pine sites were well supplied with P. When P removal through harvesting was disregarded, P balances were positive or stable (median 0.21 kg P ha⁻¹ a⁻¹). With harvesting, balances were mostly negative (median −0.35 kg P ha⁻¹ a⁻¹), with long-term P removal from the forest ecosystems.     

Removal of Cr(VI) from aqueous solutions by larch bark

The ability of larch (Larix leptolepis Gold.) bark to remove Cr(VI) from dilute aqueous solutions was investigated. The research parameters included the solution pH, contact time, temperature and initial concentration of Cr(VI) in solution. Of the parameters studied, the solution pH was found to be the most crucial. The Cr(VI) removal decreased steadily throughout the pH range studied (pH 2–6), while the Cr adsorption peaked at pH 3. Because the chemical reduction of Cr(VI) to trivalent state occurred to lesser extents even in strong acidic media, the Cr(VI) removal was mainly governed by physico-chemical adsorption. The positive value of the heat adsorption (ΔH ⁰) indicates the endothermic nature of the Cr(VI) adsorption. The relatively slow rate and irreversible nature of the adsorption as well as the order of the magnitude of the heat adsorption value suggest that the adsorption is of a chemical type. The adsorption data obtained from the equilibrium experiments were well fitted to both the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms.     

Distribution of gymnemic acid in various organs of Gymnema sylvestre

The gymnemic acid contents in various organs of Gymnema sylvestre were investigated by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) method. The results shows that the content of gymnemic acid in various organs, obviously different, was 54.29, 31.66, 28.82, 27.67, 25.39, 20.56 and 1.31 mg·g⁻¹ DW in shoot tips, flowers, nodes, leaves, internodes, roots and seeds, respectively. The highest gymnemic acid content (54.29 mg·g⁻¹ DW) was found in shoot tip, 1.96 fold higher than that in leaves (27.67 mg·g⁻¹ DW). Maximum quantity of gymnemic acid (35.39 mg·g⁻¹ DW) was observed in the young leaves, which was 1.52 times higher than that in old leaves (23.07 mg·g⁻¹ DW). The content of gymnemic acid in young, middle and old internodes was 26.47, 25.77 and 23.94 mg·g⁻¹ DW, respectively, all lower than that in leaves (27.67 mg·g⁻¹ DW), whereas the content of gymnemic acid in young, middle and old nodes was 27.96, 28.81 and 29.66 mg·g⁻¹ DW, respectively, all higher than that in leaves. The study provides the scientific evidences for the rational development and utilization of Gymnema sylvestre resources, since over exploitation of natural stands has caused depletion of these plants in nature. Foundation project: This work was supported by University Grants Commission, New Delhi (No. 33-88/2007 (SR))     

北京市典型道路防护林滞尘时空分布及其影响因子分析

[目的]研究北京海淀区3种道路防护林(油松林、圆柏林、银杏林)的滞尘能力、林内滞尘的空间分布规律、滞尘作用与气象因子和PM10浓度的相关性。[方法]滞尘量的测定用单位叶干质量滞尘量(mg·g-1)表征叶面滞尘能力。于冬、春、夏、秋4季对3种道路防护林内距道路不同距离处的滞尘量进行连续观测,比较3种道路防护林滞尘能力,分析3种道路防护林滞尘的空间分布特征及降雨等气象因子及PM10浓度与滞尘作用的相关性。[结果](1) 3种道路防护林总体单位滞尘量圆柏林(4. 20±0. 19 mg·g-1)银杏林(1. 98±0. 07 mg·g-1)油松林(1. 71±0. 07 mg·g-1);油松和圆柏林的单位滞尘量冬季春季秋季夏季,银杏林的单位滞尘量春季和秋季基本无差异,夏季最低; 3种道路防护林的单位滞尘量在各季节均为圆柏林最高,银杏林次之,油松林最低。(2) 3种道路防护林空间分布的总体特征为:油松和圆柏林的滞尘空间分布均表现为"两端高、中间低",银杏林单位滞尘量林分中间位置略高于两侧;不同季节表现为冬季北侧高,春季南侧高,夏、秋季南北侧差异不显著。(3)降水量对3种道路防护林滞尘作用影响最大,是3种道路防护林滞尘的最主要限制因子,极大风速、气温、相对湿度和PM10浓度对3种道路防护林滞尘均具有不同程度的正的直接作用。[结论]在相同配置模式(5 m×5 m)及林龄(18年)下,林地尺度滞尘量油松林最大、圆柏林次之、银杏林最低。道路防护林迎风一侧往往具有较高滞尘量,可根据盛行风向强化迎风侧的树木配置。降雨是树木滞尘的主要限制因子,冬季和春季降雨少,树木滞尘量较大,可结合人工冲洗措施使其发挥更大滞尘作用。     

Antibody-based assay for galacturonan deesterification on wood pulp fibers during bleaching

Antibodies recognizing galacturonan were used in immunoassays for industrial unbleached and hydrogen peroxide-bleached chemithermomechanical pulp (CTMP). The assays were based on a colorimetric method using specific monoclonal antibody recognition of acidic and methylated homogalacturonan, respectively, on the pulp fiber surfaces. Alkaline phosphatase-conjugated antibodies were linked to the galacturonan specific antibodies, and an alkaline phosphatase substrate (p-nitrophenylphosphate) was used to develop a yellow reaction product that can be followed spectrophotometrically. Together the newly developed immunoassays were able to describe the deesterification, specifically, of surface-localized galacturonan on CTMP, induced by alkaline hydrogen peroxide bleaching. Unbleached CTMP showed relatively more labeling by methylated galacturonan recognizing antibodies, whereas bleached CTMP was relatively more labeled for acidic galacturonan. The increase in negative charge of the bleached pulp was also shown by polyelectrolyte titration; the negative surface charge was 9.3 μeq g⁻¹ in unbleached CTMP and 21.7 μeq g⁻¹ in bleached pulp.     

Effects of chronic nitrogen application on the growth and nutrient status of a Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) stand

To investigate the potential effects of nitrogen (N) deposition on Japanese forests, a chronic N-addition experiment that included three treatments (HNO₃, NH₄NO₃, and control) was carried out in a 20-year-old Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) stand in eastern Japan over 7 years. The amount of N applied was 168 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ on the HNO₃ plots and 336 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ on the NH₄NO₃ plots. Tree growth, current needle N concentration, and soil solution chemistry were measured. Nitrogen application decreased the pH and increased NO₃ ⁻, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, and Al concentrations in the soil solution. The needle N concentration increased in both of the N plots during the first 3 years. Nevertheless, the annual increments in height and in the diameter at breast height of the Japanese cedars were not affected by N application, and no visible signs of stress were detected in the crowns. Our results suggest that young Japanese cedar trees are not deleteriously affected by an excess N load.     

Nitrogen budget of a rehabilitated forest on a degraded granitic hill

Rehabilitated forests established about 100 years ago on denuded lands in a hilly granitic area are widespread in the Kyoto–Osaka area, the second largest megalopolis in Japan. From 2001 to 2003, we monitored the annual nitrogen (N) budget of a rehabilitated forest watershed dominated by Quercus serrata and Ilex pedunculosa. The ion concentrations of bulk rain in the watershed were similar to those of other watersheds in Japan. The annual bulk rain input of N ranged from 5.1 to 6.3 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹, and the N deposition from throughfall and stem-flow ranged from 7.5 to 8.2 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. Estimated annual outputs of N from the stream ranged from 3.3 to 10.6 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. These results indicate that the amount of N deposition in this area is less than that in urban Tokyo (>10 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹), but the N output of the watershed is comparable with that of the Tokyo area. We discuss the characteristics of N dynamics in rehabilitated forests, focusing on the biogeochemical processes of this watershed.     

Micropropagation of mature Terminalia catappa (Indian Almond), a medicinally important forest tree

We report an efficient in vitro propagation method for Terminalia catappa using nodal segments of a 15-year-old mature tree. The nodal segments were cultured on MS medium supplemented with 6-benzyladenine (BA; 0.5–3.0 mg l⁻¹) or Kinetin (Kn; 0.5–3.0 mg l⁻¹) for bud breaking and multiple shoot induction. About 85% of the explant responded (2.8 ± 0.41 shoots per node with 2.7 ± 0.14 cm length) within 15 days of inoculation in Murashige and Skoog medium fortified with 2.0 mg l⁻¹ of BA. Further shoot multiplication was achieved by repeated transfer of mother explants and subculturing of in vitro-produced shoots on medium supplemented with various concentrations of BA (0.25–1.5 mg l⁻¹) or Kn (0.25–1.5 mg l⁻¹) or on their combinations. Optimal number of shoots and shoot length were recorded on MS medium supplemented with 0.25 mg l⁻¹ of BA and 0.25 mg l⁻¹ of Kn. The multiplied shoots were used for ex vitro rooting after treatment for 4 min with indole-3-butyric acid (IBA; 50–500 mg l⁻¹) or α-naphthalene acetic acid (NAA; 50–500 mg l⁻¹). About 80% of the shoots treated with 200 mg l⁻¹ of IBA produced ex vitro roots with an average of 2.8 roots per shoot. Nearly 75% of these plantlets could be acclimatized within 5 weeks and successfully established in the field. This is the first report on micropropagation of T. catappa, which can be applied for further genetic transformation assays and pharmaceutical purposes.     

Spatiotemporal distribution of aboveground litter in a Cryptomeria japonica plantation

We assessed the vertical distribution of litter and its seasonal patterns in the canopy and on the forest floor (soil), as well as litterfall (the flux of litter from the canopy to the soil) in a 33-year-old plantation of Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don). The masses of total litter, dead leaves, and dead branches in the canopy of C. japonica trees averaged 34.09, 19.53, and 14.56 t dry wt ha⁻¹, respectively, and were almost constant during the study period. The total masses of the annual litterfall were 4.17 and 5.88 t dry wt ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ in the two consecutive years of the study. The mass of the soil litter averaged 7.95 t dry wt ha⁻¹ during the same period. All relationships between the mass of canopy litter and tree-size parameters (diameters at breast height and at the lowest living branch) were linear in a log-linear regression. Compared with the results for this plantation at a younger stage (16 years old), our results suggest that the total mass of dead leaves attached to each tree increases markedly with increasing age, but that the trajectory of this increase as a function of tree size may change from an exponential to a saturation curve with increasing stand age.     

Induction of somatic embryogenesis and analysis of genetic fidelity of in vitro<Emphasis Type="Italic">-</Emphasis>derived plantlets of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bambusa nutans</Emphasis> Wall., using AFLP markers

Bambusa nutans Wall., is an evergreen, perennial, and multipurpose bamboo having strong culms, which are largely used for construction, scaffolding, craft purposes, pulp, and paper industry. Multiple shoots from nodal segments (3–4 cm) of young branches of mature culms were established in Murashige and Skoog (1962) (MS) medium supplemented with various concentrations of 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) (1.0–6.0 mg l⁻¹) or in combination with α-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) (0.5–1.0 mg l⁻¹) or kinetin (Kn) (1.0–2.0 mg l⁻¹). February–March and December were found to be the best seasons for culture establishments. Maximum shoots were achieved on MS medium fortified with BAP (2.0 mg l⁻¹). Embryogenic callus (slightly greenish compact, globular, and slow growing) was initiated from the base of severed sprouted buds in 2–3 subsequent subcultures on MS medium supplemented with 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D) (5.0 mg l⁻¹) under dark incubations. Maturation and germination of well-organized somatic embryos was achieved on MS medium containing BAP and 2,4-D (1.0 mg l⁻¹ each) with 20.0 mg l⁻¹ ascorbic acid. Full-strength MS medium supplemented with 2% glucose favored further development of proliferated somatic embryos into plantlets. Genetic variations of field-established B. nutans plants regenerated through tissue cultures were assessed by amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis using 6 primer combinations. Four hundred and seven scorable fragments were amplified, of which 402 (98.8%) have recorded conservation at various morphogenetic stages leading to plantlets regeneration, therefore, revealed a high level of genetic stability.     

山鸡椒雌花花芽分化形态特征及碳氮营养变化

目的]了解和掌握山鸡椒雌花花芽分化的形态特征及碳氮营养规律,为山鸡椒人工栽培及杂交育种提供参考依据。[方法]采用石蜡切片法观察山鸡椒雌花花芽分化的组织解剖结构,采用生理试剂盒-分光光度法测定雌花不同分化时期的可溶性糖、淀粉、可溶性蛋白、碳氮比等碳氮营养指标。[结果]表明:(1)山鸡椒雌花花芽分化经过未分化期—花序原基分化期—苞片原基分化期—花原基分化期—花器官分化期5个时期。(2)叶片可溶性糖含量随着花芽分化的发展呈不断升高的趋势,最高可达65.07 mg·g~(-1)。叶片淀粉含量随着分化时期的推进呈先升后降的趋势,其最高值出现在苞片原基分化期,达到81.30 mg·g~(-1),最低值出现在花器官分化期,为52.19 mg·g~(-1)。(3)叶片可溶性蛋白含量在花芽前3个分化期呈持续下降趋势,从61.32 mg·g~(-1)下降到52.48 mg·g~(-1),之后基本保持稳定。叶片中的碳氮比在花芽前3个分化期呈持续上升趋势,从1.49上升至2.61,之后基本维持在较高水平。[结论]山鸡椒雌花花芽分化的内部形态特征与雄花基本一致,雌花花芽分化分为5个时期。山鸡椒雌花花芽分化过程中,叶片中可溶性糖不断升高,而可溶性蛋白下降明显,碳氮比升高且保持在较高水平。     

Biomass of a man-made forest of timber tree species in the humid tropics of West Java, Indonesia

Biomass of a mature man-made forest in West Java, Indonesia, was estimated to evaluate the carbon sequestration potential of plantation forest in the humid tropics. Twenty plots, each 0.25 ha in area and containing one to six planted species over 40 years of age and with closed canopies, were selected. Trunk dry mass was estimated from trunk diameter, tree height, and bulk density. Maximum trunk diameter (122 cm) was observed in a 46-year-old Khaya grandifoliola C. DC. tree, and the tallest tree (51 m) was a 46-year-old Shorea selanica (DC.) Blume. The largest trunk biomass (911 Mg ha⁻¹) was achieved in the plot composed of two Khaya spp. Among the plots composed of indigeneous Dipterocarpaceae species, the largest trunk biomass was 635 Mg ha⁻¹. These trunk biomasses were larger than those reported from primary rainforests in Southeast Asia (e.g., 403 Mg ha⁻¹ in East Kalimantan, 522 and 368 Mg ha⁻¹ in Peninsular Malaysia). The large biomass in this forest suggests that, given favorable conditions, man-made forests can accumulate the quantities of atmospheric carbon that were lost by the logging of primary forests in the humid tropics.     

Growth pattern analysis and stemwood production in an unmanaged old plantation of hiba, Thujopsis dolabrata, in northern Japan

We analyzed the growth patterns of Thujopsis dolabrata var. hondai trees in an old plantation (161 years old), where no silvicultural treatments (e.g., thinning) have been conducted since the initial planting. The analysis focused on understanding individual growth under a long-term self-thinning process, and the stand-level stemwood production at the mature stage was evaluated. Nine canopy-layer trees and one suppressed tree were used for the analysis of annual increments in stem diameters, heights, and stemwood volumes for a given past year using the ring-width data. Both the diameter (at basal portion) and height of all the canopy-layer trees increased at similar rates during the early stage (i.e., 60–70 years after planting); however, after this period, only the height growth rates declined sharply. The annual growth rates of stemwood volume also simultaneously leveled off at the stand age of 40–60 years. Subsequently, the patterns diverged conspicuously, e.g., the growth rates were maintained or increased in some individuals, while it gradually decreased in the case of others until the present year. The divergence of growth pattern was likely to be triggered by intertree competition at several decades after the onset of canopy closure. The current stemwood production of the sample trees, including the suppressed one, was positively correlated with certain size parameters such as stem diameter at breast height and sapwood area at a height of 4 m. Based on the diameter-base allometry, the total stand stemwood production was estimated to be about 12.8 m³ ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. This estimate was higher than those of some old natural T. dolabrata forests (2.0–8.6 m³ ha⁻¹ year⁻¹) that have been well managed by repetitive selection thinning. Furthermore, individual mean stemwood production of the study plantation (0.03 m³ tree⁻¹ year⁻¹) was within the range of these natural stands (0.01–0.05 m³ tree⁻¹ year⁻¹). These comparisons suggested that the old T. dolabrata plantation still maintained a relatively high stemwood production potential despite the absence of artificial controls of tree density in the past. In terms of timber production, this fact implied that a rather long rotation (>100 years) can be applicable in the management of T. dolabrata plantations.     

银杏枝条部位和年龄对不定根形成的影响及其与非结构碳水化合物含量的关系

[目的]研究银杏枝条部位、年龄对不定根形成的影响,并探讨其相应的叶、茎段中非结构碳水化合物(NSC)含量变化与扦插生根的关系。[方法]以50年生银杏树冠上、下部枝条的1、2和3年生位置的茎段为材料截取插穗,500 mg·L-1IBA与纯水对照处理基部60 s,在全光喷雾状态下研究扦插生根情况,并利用HLPC法分析相应部位叶和茎段中NSC含量。[结果]表明:银杏扦插不定根形成过程分为4个阶段,即0～4周愈伤形成期、4～6周愈伤膨大期、6～8周不定根开始形成期、8周后不定根伸长;生根部位主要在切口处。树冠上、下部位插穗的生根率未见明显差异,但随着枝龄的增加而明显降低。NSC分析表明:下部叶片NSC组分中多糖和总糖含量明显高于上部的,但茎段NSC的所有组分在上下部均无明显差异;随着枝龄的增加,相应位置叶片NSC各组分含量没有明显差异,但相应茎段NSC组分中葡萄糖、果糖、多糖、总糖、淀粉含量却明显降低,与生根率的变化趋势一致。此外,500 mg·L-1IBA处理并未明显提高生根率,还需进一步优化处理浓度。[结论]银杏树冠上部和下部枝条对不定根形成无影响;未处理枝条的枝龄与生根率呈负相关,而茎段NSC含量与生根率呈正相关;叶片NSC含量对不定根形成影响较小;生根方式以愈伤生根类型为主。该结论将为今后银杏扦插生根及其机制研究提供参考。     

Biomass production, foliar and root characteristics and nutrient accumulation in young silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.) stand growing on abandoned agricultural land

The above-ground biomass and production, below-ground biomass, nutrient (NPK) accumulation, fine roots and foliar characteristics of a 8-year-old silver birch (Betula pendula) natural stand, growing on abandoned agricultural land in Estonia, were investigated. Total above-ground biomass and current annual production after eight growing seasons was 31.2 and 11.9 t DM ha⁻¹, respectively. The production of stems accounted for 62.4% and below-ground biomass accounted for 19.2% of the total biomass of the stand. Carbon sequestration in tree biomass reaches roughly 17.5 t C ha⁻¹ during the first 8 years. The biomass of the fine roots (d < 2 mm) was 1.7 ± 0.2 t DM ha⁻¹ and 76.2% of it was located in the 20 cm topsoil layer. The leaf area index (LAI) of the birch stand was estimated as 3.7 m² m⁻² and specific leaf area (SLA) 15.0 ± 0.1 m² kg⁻¹. The impact of the crown layer on SLA was significant as the leaves are markedly thicker in the upper part of the crown compared with the lower part. The short-root specific area (SRA) in the 30 cm topsoil was 182.9 ± 9.5 m² kg⁻¹, specific root length (SRL), root tissue density (RTD) and the number of short-root tips (>95% ectomycorrhizal) per dry mass unit of short roots were 145.3 ± 8.6 m g⁻¹, 58.6 ± 3.0 kg m⁻³ and 103.7 ± 5.5 tips mg⁻¹, respectively. In August the amount of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, accumulated in above ground biomass, was 192.6, 25.0 and 56.6 kg ha⁻¹, respectively. The annual flux of N and P retranslocation from the leaves to the other tree parts was 57.2 and 3.7 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ (55 and 27%), respectively, of which 29.1 kg ha⁻¹ N and 2.8 kg ha⁻¹ P were accumulated in the above-ground part of the stand.     

Role of income diversification in protecting natural forests: evidence from rural households in forest margins of Sri Lanka

Ranchers need alternative livestock feeds when herbaceous forages become limiting in summer. Our objectives were to determine: (1) leaf and stem biomass components, (2) nutritive value [in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD), total nonstructural carbohydrate (TNC), N, and N digestibility] of leaves for animal browse, (3) concentration of the secondary metabolites robinin and mimosine, and (4) in vitro leaf and bark toxicity for black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) and mimosa (Albizia julibrissin Durz.), respectively, pollarded at 50 cm in Arkansas, USA. Black locust exceeded mimosa for every yield component (leaf mass tree⁻¹, leaves shoot⁻¹, shoots tree⁻¹, shoot mass tree⁻¹, stem basal area, and biomass tree⁻¹) except mass leaf⁻¹. Projected yields were 1,900 and 1,600 kg leaves ha⁻¹ for black locust and mimosa, respectively, assuming a population of 12,300 trees ha⁻¹. Mimosa leaves had greater IVDMD, TNC, and N digestibility than black locust. Mimosa leaves exceeded the nutritional N requirements of growing cattle (Bos taurus L.) and goats (Capra hircus L.), but protein supplementation would be needed for growing goats grazing black locust leaves. Tissue concentrations of secondary metabolites robinin and mimosine were below detectable limits in black locust and mimosa, respectively. The extract of black locust bark, but not leaves, was toxic to bioassayed African green monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops L.) cells. Either black locust or mimosa could provide moderate quantities of high quality, rotationally grazed forage for goats during summer months when herbaceous forage may in short supply.     

Spectrochemical characterization by FT-Raman spectroscopy of wood heat-treated at low temperatures: Japanese larch and beech

Test samples of Japanese larch (Larix leptolepis) heartwood and Japanese beech (Fagus crenata) sapwood were heated for 22 h at constant temperatures (50°–180°C) under three water content conditions. Raman spectra of the samples were recorded before and after the heat treatments, and spectral changes in the range from 1000 cm⁻¹ to 1800 cm⁻¹ were evaluated using the difference spectrum method. For both wood species, the Raman band intensity at 1655–1660 cm⁻¹ due mainly to the C=C and C=O groups in lignin clearly decreased with increasing heat-treatment temperature (HTT). The spectral change was thought to reflect the progress of condensation reactions of lignin molecules during the heat treatment. Moreover, the decrease in band intensity was considerably facilitated by the presence of water in the cell wall, suggesting that the condensation is closely related to the softening of lignin. From the spectral changes in the wavenumber region of 1200–1500 cm⁻¹, it was considered that wood constituents are partially decomposed at the higher HTT. Part of this article was presented at the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, Fukuoka, March 2003