Restoring longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) stands: Effects of restoration treatments on natural loblolly pine regeneration

Historical land use and management practices in the southeastern United States have resulted in the dominance of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) on many upland sites that historically were occupied by longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.). There is currently much interest in restoring high quality longleaf pine habitats to such areas, but managers may also desire the retention of some existing canopy trees to meet current conservation objectives. However, fast-growing natural loblolly pine regeneration may threaten the success of artificially regenerated longleaf pine seedlings. We evaluated the establishment and growth of natural loblolly pine regeneration following different levels of timber harvest using single-tree selection (Control (uncut, residual basal area ∼16 m²/ha), MedBA (residual basal area of ∼9 m²/ha), LowBA (residual basal area of ∼6 m²/ha), and Clearcut (complete canopy removal)) and to different positions within canopy gaps (approximately 2800 m²) created by patch cutting at two ecologically distinct sites within the longleaf pine range: Fort Benning, GA in the Middle Coastal Plain and Camp Lejeune, NC in the Lower Coastal Plain. The density of loblolly pine seedlings was much higher at Camp Lejeune than at Fort Benning at the end of the first growing season after harvesting. Following two growing seasons, there were no significant effects of canopy density or gap position on the density of loblolly pine seedlings at either site, but loblolly pine seedlings were taller on treatments with greater canopy removal. Prescribed fires applied following the second growing season killed 70.6% of loblolly pine seedlings at Fort Benning and 64.3% of seedlings at Camp Lejeune. Loblolly pine seedlings were generally less than 2 m tall, and completeness of the prescribed burns appeared more important for determining seedling survival than seedling size. Silvicultural treatments that include canopy removal, such as patch cutting or clearcuts, will increase loblolly pine seedling growth and shorten the window of opportunity for control with prescribed fire. Therefore, application of prescribed fire every 2-3 years will be critical for control of loblolly pine regeneration during restoration of longleaf pine in existing loblolly pine stands.     

A summary of pine straw yields and economic benefits in loblolly, longleaf and slash pine stands

Forest landowners in the southeastern United States have the opportunity to manage their loblolly, longleaf and slash pine stands for pine straw (fresh undecomposed needles; the litter layer) for non-timber revenues. Pine straw is used primarily as mulch in landscaping and has grown in revenues paid to landowners in Georgia from $15.5 million in 1999 to $81 million in 2009. Pine straw is typically sold by the acre or by the bale. Selling pine straw by the acre may be advantageous to absentee landowners. Selling pine straw by the bale can generate more annual income, but bale counts need to be accurate and bale dimensions defined. For both methods, recent (2005–2010) pine straw multi-year revenues range from $50 to $150 per acre annually. Longleaf pine straw commands the highest price per bale, followed by slash pine, and lastly loblolly pine. Per rake yields from loblolly stands tend to be 15–30?% greater than slash and longleaf pine. Pine straw raking typically starts at canopy closure continuing to the first thinning, generating from $300 per acre to over $1000 per acre in new income. This paper summarizes pine straw yields and economics in loblolly, longleaf, and slash pine stands.     

Biomass and biomass change in lodgepole pine stands in Alberta

We describe methods and results for broad-scale estimation and mapping of forest biomass for the Canadian province of Alberta. Differences over successive decades provided an estimate of biomass change. Over 1500 permanent sample plots (PSP) were analyzed from across the range of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia Engelm.), the major forest tree species of Alberta. The PSP network is densest in stands aged between 70 and 100 years and is well-represented by stands of all ages to 150 years of age. Stand biomass (Mg ha(-1)) was estimated for each PSP plot as the sum of the respective biomass components for each tree (live and standing dead). The biomass components for live trees were stem, bark, branches, foliage and roots. The components for standing dead trees excluded foliage. Equations from previous biomass studies were used for biomass component estimation. Biomass estimates of additional non-tree components were attempted, but without much success. Biomass of the soil organic layer was estimated once on 452 PSPs and a mean estimate of total dead fuels on the ground (28.4 Mg ha(-1)) was available only for the entire distribution of lodgepole pine. However, values of these two components were essentially constant over time and therefore did not alter the analysis or conclusions obtained by analyzing total tree biomass alone. We then used this spatial network of 1549 plots as the basis for mapping biomass across Alberta. Mapping methods were based on Australian National University SPLINe (ANUSPLIN) software, Hutchinson's thin-plate smoothing spline in four dimensions (latitude, longitude, elevation and biomass). Total tree biomass (mean = 172 Mg ha(-1)) was dominated by stem biomass (mean = 106 Mg ha(-1)), which was an order of magnitude greater than the mean estimates for the bark (11 Mg ha(-1)), branch (12 Mg ha(-1)) and foliage (12 Mg ha(-1)) components. A close relationship was found between total tree biomass and stand stem volume (R(2) = 0.992 with n = 3585; note that volume and biomass were calculated independently). We compared total tree biomass for two decades, the 1980s and the 1990s. After correcting for changes in harvest removals over time, the mean change in total biomass was positive (0.99 Mg ha(-1) year(-1)) and differed significantly from zero (n = 421; P < 0.001). Estimates ranged from -13.9 to 8.0 Mg ha(-1) year(-1). The heart of the lodgepole pine distribution (primarily the Foothills subregions) showed an increase in biomass, whereas isolated pockets of lodgepole pine in the boreal northern subregion indicated a decline in biomass.     

Vegetation response to intensity of herbaceous weed control in a newly planted loblolly pine plantation

Growth of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) seedlings through three growing seasons after planting increased with intensity of herbaceous weed control using herbicides. Weed control had no effect on pine survival. Two years of complete herbaceous weed control (CHC, control throughout the first two growing seasons after planting) and operational herbaceous weed control (OHC, sulfometuron at 0.42 kg ai/ha at the beginning of the first growing season), resulted in lower biomass of weeds plus trees than with no herbaceous weed control (NHC) during the first growing season. Differences in total biomass during the first year were due to differences in biomass of herbaceous weeds. Total biomass on CHC and OHC plots was at least as great as NHC the second year, and greater by the third year, as pines assumed dominance as a result of increased growth from reduction of herbaceous weeds. The operational herbicide treatment had no significant impact on overall herbaceous weed biomass and cover, and little effect on species composition compared to no herbaceous weed control two and three growing seasons after treatment. The CHC treatment significantly reduced herbaceous weed biomass, cover and composition through three growing seasons.     

Comparison of branch biomass relationships for North Carolina and Oklahoma/Arkansas loblolly pine seed sources growing in southeastern Oklahoma

Comparison of branch-level foliage and branch (wood+bark) biomass relationships for North Carolina Coastal (NCC) and Oklahoma/Arkansas (O/A) loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) seed sources provided an indication of biomass partitioning differences between these two seed sources. The objective of this study was to quantify and compare the branch-level foliage and branch biomass of NCC and O/A provenances on an excessively drained site in southeastern Oklahoma to assess their branch-level biomass partitioning patterns; a modeling process was developed to accomplish this objective. It was found that seed source significantly influenced the amount of foliage per branch. If tree and branch dimensions were held constant, NCC branches would carry approximately 30% more foliage per branch than O/A branches. The relationship between tree and branch dimensions and branch production did not differ for the two seed sources. Vertical distributions of branch and foliage biomass were found to be similar for the two seed sources as well. Thus, on the droughty site observed in this study: (1) the NCC seed source tended to partition more biomass into the foliage component at the individual branch level than did the O/A seed source; (2) the two seed sources were similar in their propensity to partition biomass into the branch component at the branch level, and (3) the two seed sources were similar in the vertical distribution of branch and foliage biomass within the crown.     

Allometric equations for estimating the foliage biomass of Scots pine

The research described in this paper was performed in the Niepolomice Forest (Southern Poland) in 2001 as part of the Forest Environmental Monitoring and Management System (FOREMMS; 5FP IST) project. The material for the present study consisted of the measurement results of the biomass of Scots pine shoots with needles and needles alone carried out on 113 felled sample trees. The purpose of this study was to construct empirical equations for estimating the foliage biomass of Scots pine from easy to measure parameters. To achieve this aim, the dependence of the foliage biomass of Scots pine on stem diameter, height, age, crown length, basal area increment of the trees was analyzed. Using the biometric characteristics such as: tree diameter at breast height (dbh), basal area increment, age, height, and crown length empirical equations for estimating the foliage biomass of Scots pine reasonably precisely have been established. The created empirical equation gives accurate foliage biomass estimates. The explained variability varies between 65 and 85%, it depends on the number of variables applied in the equation. The equations presented in this paper were created with a view to their possible use in ecological studies where biomass quantity may be used, for example, in modeling carbon circulation in the forest ecosystem. From the point of view of forestry practice, these equations may help to assess biomass production in Scots pine stands.     

Water relations and growth of loblolly pine seedlings planted under a shelterwood and in a clear-cut

We investigated the influence of shelterwood conditions on water relations and growth of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) seedlings on two harsh sites in eastern Texas. Site I was harvested to provide four overstory density treatments (0, 2.3, 4.6 and 9.2 m(2) of residual basal area per ha). To quantify the effects of overstory competition, trenched and nontrenched subplots, each containing 25 one-year-old seedlings, were established within each overstory treatment plot, and predawn and midday water potentials (Psi(w)), seedling growth and survival were measured during the growing season. Leaf area and seedling biomass partitioning were measured at the end of the growing season. Site II was harvested to provide two overstory density treatments (0 and 6.9 m(2) ha(-1)) and planted with one-year-old loblolly pine seedlings. Seedling Psi(w), stomatal conductance (g(wv)), transpiration flux density (E), leaf area, height and survival were determined. On Site I, seedling Psi(w) increased with increasing overstory basal area, whereas trenching only substantially affected Psi(w) of seedlings in the 9.2 m(2) ha(-1) overstory treatment. Growth was not affected by overstory treatment or trenching. On Site II, Psi(w) and g(wv) were highest during the morning hours and lowest in the afternoon, whereas E peaked in the afternoon. Vapor pressure deficits and photosynthetic photon flux density were major factors in determining g(wv) differences between treatments. On individual days, the presence of an overstory increased Psi(w) and reduced both g(wv) and E. On Site II, leaf area was affected by overstory treatment throughout most of the study. We conclude that the presence of an overstory can have ameliorative effects on harsh sites at the western fringe of the loblolly pine natural range.     

Economic feasibility of and vegetation responses to biomass harvest in managed loblolly pine plantations

We evaluated two biomass harvest methods, (1) Whole Tree Thinning (WTT; third-row thinning), and (2) Whole Tree Thinning with Fuelchips (WTTF; third-row thinning plus remove all accessible hardwood stems >2.5 cm diameter at breast height and understory shrubs in thinned area of stand) in a 21-year-old loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) plantation in northwest Florida for their harvesting yields and productivities, costs, and effects on groundcover. Both WTT and WTTF produced similar quantities of roundwood (~70 Mg ha^?1) and chips (8.43–13.12 Mg ha^?1) without significantly added operational time (15.77–28.12 Mg h^?1). On-board costs of chip production (US$6.93 to 10.60 Mg^?1) and total cost of roundwood and chip production (~22.5 US$ Mg^?1) of the two harvest methods also did not differ significantly. Following either WTT or WTTF, overall percent groundcover recovered within 6 months. While shrub and grass cover were similar, forb cover in WTT increased significantly following six months of harvests. Importantly, the study suggests that biomass removal is an attractive option that could be integrated with traditional silvicultural thinning methods to manage vegetation and alleviate hazardous fuel and wildfire conditions, leading to improved forest health.     

Generalized biomass equations for the main aboveground biomass components of maritime pine across contrasting environments

• Introduction   

In order to predict the biomass of aerial components of maritime pine stands (Pinus pinaster Ait.), generalized allometric equations were developed using data collected from the southern and northern margins of its geographical area.     

Availability of residual phosphorus fertilizer for loblolly pine

Fertilizing pine plantations with phosphorus has been a common practice on the Coastal Plain since the 1960s. A decision to fertilize a second or subsequent rotation must take into consideration the availability of residual phosphorus fertilizer. We tested the efficacy of phosphorus applied in a first rotation loblolly pine stand to support the growth of the subsequent second rotation stand. Phosphorus rates applied in 1967 at the time of planting of the first rotation were 0, 28 and 56 kg/ha. Retreatments included the application of 45 kg/ha P at midrotation in 1978, and the application of 45 kg/ha P at the beginning of the second rotation in 1991. The field trial had a split-block design with the three initial P rates crossed by five retreatments, and replicated four times. The first rotation 28 kg/ha P treatment had 91% and the 56 kg/ha P treatment 101% of the volume at age 5 of all the treatments fertilized with P in the second rotation. Foliar P levels, in the second rotation, were elevated at age 2 relative to ages 3 and 5, presumably due to effective competition control. Twenty-nine percent, 40% and 75% of the trees fertilized with 28 kg/ha P in 1967, 56 kg/ha P in 1967, and 45 kg/ha P in 1991, respectively, had foliar P concentrations of 0.10% or above at age 3. Based on foliar analyses, we recommend refertilizing stands fertilized with 45 kg/ha P in the first rotation by age 3 in the second rotation.     

松材线虫病在纯松林内自然扩散规律的研究

在偏僻地带的大面积轻微发病纯松林内通过反复强度清理病死、濒死松树及所有可疑松树，及在中心部位人为设置“中心侵染源”松木段，模拟松材线虫病Ｂｕｒｓａｐｈｅｌｅｎｃｈｕｓｘｙｌｏｐｈｉｌｕｓ自然扩散。经定期定点观察，初步摸清了华东丘陵地带松材线虫病及松褐天牛在纯松林内自然扩散规律，为松材线虫病治理提供了依据     

3种异速生长方程对生物量建模的对比分析

利用5个树种的1 055株样木的生物量实测数据,对3种常用的异速生长方程的建模效果进行比较分析。结果表明,二元生物量模型M=aDbHc的拟合效果通常要好于一元生物量模型M=aDb;基于组合变量的常用二元模型M=a(D2H)b并不适合于各类生物量的估计,仅对树干生物量和干材生物量的估计是有效的,对其它生物量的估计其效果还不如一元模型;建立树冠、树枝和树叶生物量模型时,采用组合变量D3/H可能是合适的。     

Oak natural regeneration and conversion processes in mixed Scots pine stands

The main task of the study was to find out if spontaneous oakregeneration can play an important role in conversion processesof mixed Scots pine stands to native broadleaved forests. Thepaper examines the amount and structure of oak natural regenerationunder different gap sizes and defines the optimal gap size forinitiation, growth and development of oak regeneration. Theinvestigation was conducted in managed forests in the GarwolinForest District in the central part of Poland. All gaps, definedas openings in the canopy     

Effects of uneven-aged silviculture on the stand structure,species composition,and economic returns of loblolly pine stands

Uneven-aged silviculture in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) stands has many economic and ecological benefits. Here, the consequences of various uneven-aged management regimes are predicted with the SouthPro simulator. Results indicate that target distributions for pines with residual merchantable basal areas of ≈12.5 m² ha⁻¹, maximum diameters of ca. 40 cm, and q-ratios of 1.2–1.25 for 2.5 cm DBH classes are likely to provide high economic returns on good sites when combined with hardwood control. Increasing this maximum diameter would enhance tree-size diversity, but reduce sawtimber production and profits. Retaining a hardwood component with 1.15–2.3 m² ha⁻¹ of basal area could enhance tree-species diversity, but this too would result in moderate reductions in income. Insisting on maximizing tree-size diversity or tree-species diversity among softwoods, soft hardwood, and hard hardwoods would be quite costly in terms of lost income and production. Results also illustrate how short-term economic incentives can lead to high-grading practices, despite substantial reductions in stand productivity and net returns in the long term.     

Effects of phenology,water availability and seed source on loblolly pine biomass partitioning and transpiration

One-year-old loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) seedlings from four seed sources (Arkansas, Georgia, Texas and Virginia) grown in 1-m-deep sand-filled pits in two water regimes (well-watered and drought) were studied, to gain insight into the process of seedling establishment. Whole-plant transpiration was measured biweekly from July to December. Whole-plant harvests were conducted at 6-week intervals from April to December. Whole-plant transpiration and transpiration per unit leaf and root area were affected by treatment, seedlot and phenology. Seedlings of the Arkansas seedlot maintained significantly higher transpiration rates per unit leaf and root area during drought than seedlings of the Virginia, Georgia or Texas seedlots, but did not accumulate greater biomass. The high transpiration rates of the Arkansas seedlings were attributed to their deep root systems. Allometric relationships indicated that, relative to the whole plant, biomass allocation to needles of drought-treated seedlings was enhanced during the summer (allometric ratio 1.09), whereas allocation to roots was enhanced in the spring and fall (allometric ratios of 1.13 and 1.09, respectively). Relative to the whole plant, biomass allocation to needles of well-watered seedlings was enhanced throughout the experiment (allometric ratio of 1.16 declining to 1.05), whereas the allometric ratio of root to total biomass was 0.89 or less throughout. Allometric relationships also indicated variation in biomass partitioning to roots in three soil layers (0-30, 30-60 and 60-100 cm), which differed among harvests in each soil layer. Root growth in both well-watered and drought-treated seedlings was concentrated in the top soil layer in the spring, shifted to the middle and bottom soil layers in the summer, and then increased in the top soil layer in the fall. Compared with well-watered seedlings, drought-treated seedlings had higher rates of root growth in the bottom soil layer in the fall, a characteristic that would confer tolerance to future periods of limited soil water availability.     

Abundance of insect pests and their effects on biomass yields of single vs. multi-species planted fallows

Indigenous and exotic leguminous shrubs that are promising for planted fallow for soil fertility replenishment in east and southern Africa have been found to harbour many herbivorous insects, giving suspicion that widespread adoption of fallow systems may aggravate insect pests. Studies were conducted on farms in western Kenya from 1999 to 2001 to monitor the abundance of herbivorous insects and assess their effects on biomass yields of pure and mixed fallows. The treatments tested were single and two-species mixtures of Tephrosia vogelii, Sesbania sesban and Crotalaria grahamiana and a natural fallow in a split plot design, with the fallow systems in the main plots and protection vs. no protection against insects in sub-plots spread over six farms. Eighteen insect species belonging to seven orders and 14 families were identified as pests of␣the fallows with varied abundance and infestation level across the sites. While Hilda patruelis and Amphicallia pactolicus were most damaging to C. grahamiana, Mesoplatys ochroptera was detrimental to S.␣sesban. T. vogelii hosted fewer insects than others. Nevertheless the pest infestation did not cause significant biomass yield reduction during the study period. Pest attack was generally greater in villages that had been testing the planted fallows for some years compared with villages that took up the fallows recently. This indicates the potential for increased pest infestation with increased adoption of the system by farmers. Multi-species fallows did not indicate any advantage over single species fallows in terms of either reduced pest incidence or increased biomass production.     

Fine root biomass and production in Scots pine stands in relation to stand age

We determined fine root biomass and production of 15-, 35- and 100-year-old Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands during three growing seasons. Fine roots were sampled by the soil core method. Mean (+/- SE) annual fine root biomass of Scots pine in the 15-, 35- and 100-year-old stands was 220 +/- 25, 357 +/- 21 and 259 +/- 26 g m(-2), respectively. Fine root biomass of the understory vegetation was 159 +/- 54 g m(-2), 244 +/- 30 and 408 +/- 81 g m(-2), and fine root necromass was 500 +/- 112, 1,047 +/- 452 and 1,895 +/- 607 g m(-2) in the sapling, pole stage and mature stands, respectively. Both understory and Scots pine fine root production increased with stand age. Mean annual Scots pine fine root production was 165 +/- 131, 775 +/- 339 and 860 +/- 348 g m(-2) year(-1) in the sapling, pole stage and mature stand, respectively. The respective mean annual production of all fine roots (Scots pine and understory) was 181 +/- 129, 1,039 +/- 497 and 1,360 +/- 869 g m(-2) year(-1). The Scots pine and understory fine root biomass, necromass and production varied in relation to stand age, although the variation was not statistically significant.     

表达耐盐基因的转基因火炬松的再生

盐害是限制作物和树木分布和生产的重要因素。盐分过多导致细胞内水分缺失并影响许多重要的细胞代谢活动。本文利用火炬松作为模式植物建立了一套提高植物耐盐性的新技术。这一技术以火炬松合子胚为材料,利用农杆菌介导的转化方法将山犁醇脱氢酶和甘露醇脱氢酶基因转入火炬松。然后再生转化的愈伤组织和转基因植株。经DNA杂交证实的转基因植株被用于耐盐性试验,结果表明这些转基因的植株的耐盐性有明显的提高。这一技术对针叶树的遗传工程育种有重要的参考价值。图3表2参26。     

Biochemical composition of loblolly pine reflects pollutant exposure

Under experimental conditions, the growth of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) is often responsive to ozone at near-ambient concentrations. However, little is known of the biochemical changes associated with this or other pollutants. Loblolly pine seedlings in open-top chambers were exposed to combinations of ozone (sub-ambient, ambient, or twice-ambient), acidic precipitation (pH 3.8 or pH 5.2) and soil magnesium (0.15 or 0.32 microg g(-1) exchangeable Mg) for three growing seasons. The effects of these treatments were greater in foliage than in stems or roots. The largest treatment effect was a 50% decrease in the starch concentration of current-year foliage from the twice-ambient ozone treatment compared with current-year foliage from the sub-ambient ozone treatment. Responses to ozone were consistent with the hypothesis that ozone-induced growth reductions are associated with depletion of carbohydrate reserves resulting from injury compensation and repair processes or reduced carbon fixation or both. Addition of acidic precipitation, and to a small extent Mg, decreased sugar concentrations of tissues; however, this effect appeared to be mediated by nutrient addition rather than by acidity per se. Given the role of carbohydrates in plant resistance to environmental stress, the sensitivity of carbohydrates to experimental treatments demonstrates the potential for indirect effects of ozone, acidic precipitation, and soil properties on stress resistance. Noncarbohydrate constituents were largely unresponsive to the experimental treatments. These findings imply that tissue carbohydrate analysis may be useful for assessing the impacts of pollutants in forest ecosystems.