Cause of ill health and natural death in badgers in Gloucestershire.

During the period 1973 to 1976 inclusive, 1206 badger carcases were examined for evidence of tuberculosis and other diseases. Tuberculosis was the major cause of natural death, killing 39 per cent of the natural death cases, followed by bite wounding and starvation. Road traffic accidents were the greatest single cause of death.     

Survey of the knowledge, attitudes and practice of Italian beef and dairy cattle veterinarians concerning the use of antibiotics

Between June and September 2002 a telephone survey of Italian beef and dairy cattle veterinarians was made to obtain information about their use of antibiotics and their perception of the problem of antimicrobial resistance. A total of 106 veterinarians, selected at random from the membership lists of two professional societies, were interviewed by telephone, using a structured questionnaire concerning their background, training and continuing education activities, and current type of practice; their diagnostic, treatment, and prophylactic practices for mastitis, calf scours and respiratory disease; and their perception of the threat posed by antimicrobial resistance. The median age of the interviewees was 42.5 (range 28 to 75) years; 62 per cent treated only dairy cattle, 10 per cent treated only beef cattle and 28 per cent treated both. Laboratory support was requested 'frequently' or 'always' by 67 per cent of the veterinarians when treating mastitis, by 37 per cent when treating calf scours and by 17 per cent when treating respiratory diseases. Twenty per cent reported using prophylactic antibiotics 'often' or 'sometimes' for calf scours, 28 per cent for respiratory diseases, and 62 per cent reported their use 'always' or 'often' for mastitis. Fluoroquinolones, phenicols or third/fourth-generation cephalosporins were prescribed as first-choice drugs by 54 per cent for calf scours, by 12 per cent for bacterial respiratory diseases and by 6 per cent for mastitis. Therapeutic failure was reported 'often' (21 per cent) or 'sometimes' (64 per cent) and was the main predictor in a multivariate model of the use of newer antibiotics. The level of awareness of the problem of antibiotic resistance was high, although more than half of the interviewees were confident that new antimicrobial drugs were already available to replace those of lower effectiveness.     

BSAVA EDUCATION COMMITTEE COMMISSIONED ARTICLE Fever of unknown origin in dogs and cats

Fever is a common, albeit, non-specific manifestation of disease. Most fevers are due to transient viral or bacterial infections which either resolve spontaneously or with appropriate therapy. Fever of unknown origin (FUO) is a syndrome characterized by prolonged, unexplained fever associated with vague, non-specific signs of illness such as lethargy, anorexia and weight loss. This paper reviews briefly the pathophysiology of fever and outlines in more detail a logical problem-orientated approach to diagnosis of FUO in the dog and cat. The major causes of FUO are discussed under four headings; (1) localized or systemic infections, (2) immune-mediated diseases, (3) neoplasia and (4) miscellaneous diseases.     

Sudden and unexpected death in horses and ponies: an analysis of 200 cases

An analysis was made of the causes of death in horses and ponies over one year of age which died suddenly (Group 1) or were found dead but were considered normal when last seen (Group 2). There were 49 animals in Group 1. Thoroughbreds were overrepresented, but there were no ponies in this group. No cause of death was found in 30.6 per cent of cases and 16.3 per cent died from each of the following causes: haemorrhage in the respiratory system, central nervous system, and adverse drug reactions. Cardiovascular lesions were the cause of death in 14.4 per cent and the remaining 3.1 per cent had lesions of the gastrointestinal system. Racehorses mostly died suddenly from severe haemorrhage in various sites, particularly the thorax. In Group 2 there were 151 animals, and in 33.1 per cent no cause of death was determined. Gastrointestinal lesions were considered the cause of death in 39.2 per cent of cases and respiratory lesions killed 8.6 per cent. Lesions of both the central nervous system and cardiovascular system were considered the cause in 4.6 per cent of cases. The remaining 9.9 per cent of animals had miscellaneous lesions. Toxicological studies were performed in 46 of the total 200 cases, and only two had positive results; lead in one and nicotine in the other.     

Use of antimicrobial drugs in Swedish dairy calves and replacement heifers

A total of 3081 heifer calves in 122 Swedish dairy herds were monitored from birth to first calving, and all their diseases and treatments were recorded. There were 1268 cases of infectious diseases, of which 335 (26.4 per cent) were treated with antimicrobial drugs. Just over 90 per cent of the treatments were given during the first 210 days of the calves' lives, but only 61.8 per cent of the total quantity of antimicrobial drugs was consumed during this period. The most common diseases from birth until 210 days were respiratory diseases and diarrhoea; treatments for mastitis and interdigital phlegmon (foul in the foot) were more common after 420 days of age. Slightly more than 60 per cent of the treatments were given by the farmers without prior consultation with a veterinary surgeon.     

Canine neurological diseases in a referral hospital population between 1989 and 2000 in Switzerland

OBJECTIVES: To merge clinical information from partly overlapping medical record databases of the Small Animal Teaching Hospital of the Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Berne. To describe the frequencies and localisations of neurological diseases in dogs, as well as their age, gender, breed and geographical distributions. METHODS: In this retrospective study, a new database, with specific variables and a diagnosis key list 'VITAMIN D', was created and defined. A total of 4497 dogs (average of 375 per year) with a well-documented neurological disease were included in the study. A key list for the diagnoses was developed and applied to either the presumptive or the clinical and neurohistopathological diagnosis, with a serial number, a code for localisation and a code for differential diagnoses. RESULTS: Approximately 1159 dogs (26 per cent) had a neurohistopathological diagnosis confirmed, 1431 (32 per cent) had a clinical diagnosis confirmed and 1491 (33 per cent) had a presumptive diagnosis. The most frequent breeds were mixed-breed dogs (577 of 4497, 13 per cent), followed by German shepherd dogs (466 of 4497, 10 per cent). The most common localisations were the forebrain (908 of 4497, 20 per cent) and the spinal cord at the thoracolumbar area (840 of 4497, 19 per cent). Most dogs were diagnosed with degenerative diseases (38 per cent), followed by inflammatory/infectious diseases (14 per cent). The highest number of submissions originated from geographic regions around the referral hospital and from regions with higher human population densities. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: By defining closed-list fields and allocating all data to the corresponding fields, a standardised database that can be used for further studies was generated. The analysis of this study gives examples of the possible uses of a standardised database.     

Prevalence of clinical signs of disease in Danish finisher pigs

Between December 1999 and February 2001, two visits, eight weeks apart, were made to 90 herds of Danish finisher pigs. The prevalence of clinical signs was recorded by three veterinary technicians from the Danish Bacon and Meat Council according to a standardised procedure; they had been trained and their observations were monitored and validated before and during the study. A total of 154,347 finisher pigs were examined and 22,136 clinical signs were recorded. Vices accounted for 43 per cent of the signs. The highest mean prevalence was observed for ear necrosis (4.44 per cent), followed by respiratory signs (2.17 per cent), lameness (1.92 per cent), other skin diseases (1.73 per cent), tail bites (1.26 per cent), umbilical hernia (0.78 per cent), flank bites (0.52 per cent), diarrhoea (0.27 per cent), respiratory distress (0.12 per cent), atrophic rhinitis (0.10 per cent), recumbency (0.09 per cent) and central nervous disease (0.05 per cent). The prevalence of atrophic rhinitis was higher in conventional herds than in specific pathogen-free herds. The prevalence of clinical signs of atrophic rhinitis was higher among finishers weighing 51 to 75 kg than among finishers weighing up to 50 kg, and the prevalence of respiratory signs was higher among finishers weighing 51 to 75 kg then among finishers weighing 76 to 100 kg.     

Postal survey of the population of South American camelids in the United Kingdom in 2000/01

The members of the two leading British camelid breeders associations were surveyed by means of a postal questionnaire between December 2000 and January 2001; 696 questionnaires were posted and 218 usable responses were returned. A total of 3520 camelids were recorded, of which 2719 (77.2 per cent) were alpacas (Lama pacos) and 726 (20.6 per cent) were llamas (Lama glama). Ninety-four per cent of the camelid herds were of one species, and 70 per cent of the animals were kept for more than one purpose. Camelids imported from South America were present on 45 per cent of the units surveyed. Husbandry procedures and preventive health measures were uniform; 92.2 per cent of the animals were kept on pasture all year round, 99 per cent were supplemented with hay and 97.7 per cent with concentrate feed; 88.1 per cent were vaccinated against clostridial disease with a multivalent vaccine licensed for sheep, and 96.3 per cent were treated periodically with anthelmintic drugs. During 2000, ill health, other than dermatological conditions, was reported by 24.3 of respondents, and 32 different conditions were described. Skin disease was reported by 51 per cent of breeders. Zinc deficiency was diagnosed presumptively as the cause of skin disease by 31.9 per cent of the respondents, and ectoparasitism by 26.4 per cent. Of those who treated a skin condition, 71.9 per cent reported an improvement, but less than half of them considered the improvement to have been permanent.     

Antimicrobial susceptibility of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from dogs with otitis externa

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a common cause of otitis externa in dogs, and treatment of these infections is becoming problematic because of the increasing number of multiresistant strains. The aim of the present study was to compare the in vitro activities of cefepime, ceftazidime, enrofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin and ticarcillin/clavulanic acid against 104 strains of P aeruginosa isolated from dogs with otitis externa. Antimicrobial susceptibility and minimum inhibitory concentrations, in μg/ml, were evaluated by the E test (bioMérieux). The most active compound was ceftazidime, with 100 per cent efficiency. The majority of tested strains were susceptible to ticarcillin/clavulanic acid (89.4 per cent), followed by ciprofloxacin (88.5 per cent) and cefepime (60.6 per cent). The highest resistance was observed to enrofloxacin (51.9 per cent) and gentamicin (43.3 per cent). Large numbers of strains were intermediately susceptible to antibiotics registered for use in veterinary medicine in Croatia--enrofloxacin (47.1 per cent) and gentamicin (41.3 per cent).     

Factors influencing the short-term outcome following thoracic surgery in 98 dogs

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the factors influencing the short-term (<14 days) outcome of thoracic surgery in dogs. METHODS: A retrospective review of 98 dogs undergoing thoracotomy over a five-year period was undertaken. RESULTS: A pre-operative diagnosis was achieved in 69 per cent of cases. Intrathoraic neoplasia had the lowest pre-operative diagnosis rate (5.5 per cent). Mortality rates of 21 per cent were recorded and were significantly higher for intrathoracic neoplasia (50 per cent) and significantly lower for persistent ductus arteriosus (7.4 per cent) and vascular ring anomaly (0 per cent). Median sternotomy was the preferred approach for pyothorax (85 per cent) and penetrating thoracic injuries (66 per cent). Intercostal thoracotomy was the preferred approach for all other diseases. Postoperative complications occurred in 39 per cent of cases. Wound complications were more common for pyothorax (45 per cent) and following median sternotomy (71 per cent). Thoracic drains were placed in 77 per cent of cases and complications were recorded in 23 per cent. Pyothorax and chylothorax had thoracic drains maintained for significantly longer periods of time. Longer thoracic drain duration was correlated significantly with increased complication rates. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The short-term outcome following thoracic surgery is influenced by diagnosis. The thoracic approach is determined by intrathoracic disease, but may influence outcome by affecting the incidence of postoperative wound complications. The risk of thoracic drain complications increases with drain duration, which is influenced by the underlying disease. Drains should be maintained for the minimal amount of time possible.     

Relationship between overfeeding, metritis and ketosis in high yielding dairy cows

The association between overfeeding before calving, metritis and ketosis in seven dairy herds was investigated. The overall rate of ketonuria in 695 adult cows tested routinely between seven and 14 days post partum was 18 per cent and that of post parturient uterine diseases was 56.5 per cent. Eighty per cent of all cows with ketonuria concurrently suffered from post parturient uterine diseases. Ketonuria was found by a retrospective analysis to be independently associated with both overfeeding before calving and post parturient uterine diseases. In view of the additional risks of both metritis and ketonuria associated with overfeeding before calving and the fact that the risk of ketonuria in cows which had metritis was also found to be associated with overfeeding, it is argued that the term 'complicated' rather than 'secondary' ketosis should be applied to such cases, and that appropriate therapeutic measures should be taken accordingly.     

Characteristics, prevalence and aetiology of lesions of the oral mucosa in adult sheep

A total of 214 sheep with lesions of the oral mucosa were recorded at the Veterinary Laboratories Agency regional laboratories between March 15, 2002 and February 28, 2003. Using denominator data from the scrapie abattoir survey a prevalence of 0.95 per cent (95 per cent CI 0.82 to 1.10 per cent) was recorded, and using the fallen stock survey a prevalence of 1.15 per cent (95 per cent CI 0.64 to 1.91 per cent) was recorded. The lesions varied widely and included dental pad lesions in 20 per cent of cases. In total, 248 sites were affected, the commonest being the lower gum below the incisors, which was affected in 100 sheep. Most of the lesions were 1 cm or less in diameter. Ninety per cent of the 251 lesions examined histologically were erosions, ulcers, healed ulcers, focal epithelial necrosis or haemorrhages, and the changes observed indicated that trauma was the most likely primary cause.     

Rapid identification of Pasteurella multocida organisms responsible for haemorrhagic septicaemia using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

Haemorrhagic septicaemia (HS) is caused by specific serotypes of Pasteurella multocida and is one of the major economic diseases of cattle and buffalo in South East Asia. Definitive diagnosis of the disease-causing organism with the available methods is labour intensive and not totally reliable, consequently, an ELISA system to identify P multocida organisms which cause HS was developed. One hundred and twenty-four P multocida isolates were tested, 58 were type strains and 66 were field isolates. Analysis of these strains indicated the assay had a specificity of 99 per cent and sensitivity of at least 86 per cent. The sensitivity could be an underestimate, as five isolates assumed to be false negative reactions may not all be HS-causing strains. The HS ELISA provides a rapid, simple, accurate and inexpensive diagnostic assay for identification of HS causing organisms but does not represent a new typing system for P multocida. This assay will also enable countries to assess the impact of HS more accurately.     

Suspected side effects of doxycycline use in dogs - a retrospective study of 386 cases

This study investigated doxycycline-related side effects in a large population of dogs. Data from 386 dogs that had received doxycycline for the treatment of various infectious diseases were analysed retrospectively. Potential side effects that developed during treatment were documented, and correlations with signalment, dose, duration of treatment, frequency of application, doxycycline preparation and use of additional drugs were investigated. Vomiting was reported in 18.3 per cent of dogs, 7.0 per cent developed diarrhoea and 2.5 per cent developed anorexia. While being treated with doxycycline, 39.4 per cent of dogs showed an increase in alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activity and 36.4 per cent showed an increase in alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity. There was a dose-related risk of an increase in ALP activity (P=0.011, odds ratio [OR]=1.27, 95 per cent confidence interval [CI] 1.06 to 1.53), and older dogs treated with doxycycline were more likely to develop an increase in ALT activity (P=0.038, OR=1.23, 95 per cent CI 1.01 to 1.50) and vomiting (P=0.017, OR=1.11, 95 per cent CI 1.02 to 1.21).     

Low ratios of sodium to potassium in the serum of 238 dogs

Serum sodium:potassium (Na:K) ratios are often reported in biochemical studies of dogs, although their value has not been assessed. The aims of this study were to identify diseases associated with a low Na:K ratio in dogs and to compare their prevalence with the prevalence in dogs from the same referral hospital with normal Na:K ratios. A total of 238 dogs with a Na:K ratio less than 27 were identified from medical records. Sample contamination with edta was suspected in 74 cases (31 per cent) and these and two cases that had been supplemented with potassium were removed from the analysis. The remaining 162 cases and 147 control dogs were divided into five categories depending on the organ system affected. Among the cases there were significantly more in the endocrine category than among the control dogs. Hypoadrenocorticism was the most single common cause of a low Na:K ratio and affected 27 (16.7 per cent) of the cases. Other clinical problems associated with low Na:K ratios included different urogenital, cardiorespiratory and gastrointestinal diseases.     

Fox predation as a cause of lamb mortality on hill farms

Data collected between 1993 and 1996 from two Scottish hill farms were used to assess the potential importance of predation by foxes as a cause of lamb mortality. Farm 1 was in Midlothian and farm 2 in West Perthshire. Overall lamb mortality rates from birth onwards were 10.2 per cent for farm 1 and 9.3 per cent for farm 2. Sixteen lambs were identified as killed by foxes on the two farms during the four-year period. The minimum rates of fox predation were 0.6 per cent for farm 1 and 0.2 per cent for farm 2. All confirmed cases of fox predation were recorded during the period until the lambs were marked at about six weeks of age, and during this period another 53 lambs went missing from the two farms. Both groups of missing lambs were characterised by having significantly more siblings than the remaining lambs. A logistic regression model was able to classify the lambs killed by foxes and the missing lambs with 75 per cent accuracy on the basis of their birth rank alone. Of the total potential revenue from lamb production, the maximum losses due to confirmed fox predation in any one year were equivalent to 1.5 per cent on farm 1 and 0.6 per cent on farm 2.     

Evaluation of clinical signs and causes of lower urinary tract disease in European cats

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the clinical signs and causes of lower urinary tract disease (LUTD) in 77 cats. METHODS: Cats diagnosed with LUTD over a two-year period were included in the study. RESULTS: The study population comprised 67 male and 10 female cats. Uroliths occurred in 17 of the 77 cats (22 per cent), urethral plugs in eight cats (10 per cent) and urinary tract infection in six cats (8 per cent). In 44 cats (57 per cent), no specific cause for the disease was found and they were classified as having idiopathic LUTD. In two of the 77 cats (3 per cent) no definitive diagnosis was established. Pain was less common in cats with uroliths and haematuria was more often seen in cats with urinary tract infection. At presentation, urethral obstruction was diagnosed in 45 of the 77 cats (58 per cent). CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The causes of LUTD found in cats in this study are similar to those that have been previously documented, and idiopathic LUTD is the most frequent diagnosis. However, the rate of urethral obstruction, particularly in cats with idiopathic LUTD, was higher than in other reports. The cause of this difference is unknown.     

Compliance with short-term oral antibacterial drug treatment in dogs

Compliance with a 10-day course of oral antibacterial drugs in dogs being treated as outpatients at a veterinary clinic was assessed by use of pill count data obtained by telephone interview. The association between compliance and several possible determinants of compliance was investigated. Ninety-five animal owners were included in the study, with 44 per cent reporting 100 per cent compliance with the treatment regimen and as many as 88 per cent reporting a compliance level of 80 per cent or more. The compliance level was significantly higher (P < 0.002) when the animal owners felt that the veterinarians spent enough time on the consultation. Moreover, compliance was significantly higher (P < 0.05) for dogs being treated for gastrointestinal infections compared with those being treated for other diseases.     

Survey of the seroprevalence of brucellosis in ruminants in Kosovo

A cross-sectional survey of the seroprevalence of brucellosis in sheep, goats and cattle in Kosovo was made in January 2001. A total of 12,000 serum samples, from 7941 cattle, 3548 sheep and 511 goats, were screened using the Rose Bengal test. Doubtful and positive results were further tested with competitive and indirect ELISAS. The overall serological prevalences derived from the samples positive to all three tests, were 6.26 per cent (95 per cent confidence intervals [CI] 5.5 to 7.1 per cent) for sheep, 7.24 per cent (5.3 to 9.8 per cent) for goats and 0.58 per cent (0.43 to 0.77 per cent) for cattle. The survey covered 26 of the 29 municipalities and showed that brucellosis was widely but unevenly distributed throughout the province. Seropositive animals were found in 25 per cent (19 to 32 per cent) of 162 villages surveyed. The risk of cattle being infected on holdings where both cattle and sheep were kept was greater, with a risk ratio of 4.6 (2.2 to 9.6), than on holdings where only cattle were kept. Brucella melitensis probably predominates as the cause of brucellosis in ruminants in the province of Kosovo.     

Evaluation of a commercially available apparatus for measuring the acute phase protein serum amyloid A in horses

The aim of this study was to investigate the reliability of an immunoturbidometric assay for measuring the acute phase protein serum amyloid A (SAA) in horses in clinical practice. The assay was compared to a previously validated assay, and overlap performance was assessed by measuring the concentration of SAA in clinically healthy horses and horses with inflammatory and non-inflammatory diseases. In pools of serum with low and high SAA concentrations the assay's intra-assay coefficients of variation were 11.7 per cent and 4.6 per cent, and its interassay coefficients of variation were 9.1 per cent and 5.6 per cent, respectively. Slight inaccuracies were observed, but they were negligible in comparison with the range of the SAA response. The assay systematically underestimated the concentrations of SAA in comparison with the results of the validated assay. The assay detected the expected difference in SAA concentrations between the healthy and diseased horses.