Assessing the Spatiotemporal Dynamic of Global Grassland Water Use Efficiency in Response to Climate Change from 2000 to 2013

Water use efficiency (WUE), which is a ratio of net primary production (NPP) to evapotranspiration (ET), is an important index representing the relationship between carbon and water cycles. This study evaluates the spatiotemporal dynamics of global grassland WUE from 2000 to 2013 to reveal the different responses of each grassland type to climate variations. Their correlations with climate variables are also investigated to reflect their dependence on climate. The average annual WUE of different grassland types follows an order of: closed shrublands > woody savannas > savannas > open shrublands > non‐woody grasslands. Although the NPP of all grassland types has increased from 2000 to 2013, 37.89 % of grassland ecosystems globally experienced a decreased WUE, in which 3.34 % has extremely significantly decreased. The WUE of open shrublands, woody savannas and non‐woody grasslands shows an overall descending trend because of the exceeding increasing rate of ET. By contrast, the decreased ET contributes to the overall ascending trend of the WUE of closed shrublands and savannas over this period. Moreover, the WUE of each grassland type reacts differently to climate variations in the northern and southern hemispheres. The grassland WUE dynamic is more controlled by precipitation than temperature at a global scale.     

基于Agro-IBIS模型的新疆农田生态系统净初级生产力时空动态及其对气候变化的响应模拟研究

为了系统地了解干旱区农田生态系统碳动态及其对气候变化的响应,笔者利用基于过程的新型全球动态植被模型(Agro-IBIS)模拟了1979—2009年间新疆农田生态系统净初级生产力(NPP)的时空变化,并通过相关性分析揭示农田NPP对不同气候因子和CO2浓度变化的响应。结果表明,在1979—2009年间,新疆农田NPP平均值为723.78 g C/(m2·a),总碳储量约为237.15 Tg C,净农田生态系统碳交换量(NEE)年平均值为-63.36 g C/(m2·a),并总体上呈碳汇特征。对新疆农田NPP的空间变化而言,除了在天山地区绿洲农田NPP出现较小幅度的减少外,总体变化呈逐步增加趋势。31年来,新疆农田年度NPP总量与年均气温的相关性比与降水量的相关性较高。说明以灌溉对新疆干旱区绿洲田生产力的影响远大于自然降水。经验证,Agro-IBIS模型对于新疆农田生态系统碳收支的模拟结果合理,可以为中国西北干旱区农田生态系统的固碳潜力的模拟预测和科学制定区域碳管理政策提供科学依据。     

陕北退耕还林区植被NPP时空变化及其驱动因子

为了给陕北退耕还林区植被生产力评价及退耕还林等生态工程完成情况的评估提供科学依据,笔者应用美国蒙大拿大学提供的净初级生产力(NPP)产品 (MOD17A3),利用ArcGIS软件进行统计分析,研究区分NPP与气候因素（年降水量、年均气温）和土地利用类型转变的关系。结果表明：陕北退耕还林区植被NPP呈现南部高北部低的明显特征,2000—2013年植被NPP均值大部分区域在150~ 300 g C/(m²·a)之间,均值为134.23 g C/(m²·a);植被NPP年际变化除无植被覆盖区域,其他地区均为增加趋势;植被NPP与气候因子相关系数均表现为正相关与负相关并存,大部分地区NPP与降水量的相关性较强,与平均气温相关性总体没有与降水量相关性明显,且均有极小部分地区通过α＜0.05显著性检验;土地覆被的改变对该区域植被NPP的变化起着显著的推动作用。     

Impact analysis of climate data aggregation at different spatial scales on simulated net primary productivity for croplands

For spatial crop and agro-systems modelling, there is often a discrepancy between the scale of measured driving data and the target resolution. Spatial data aggregation is often necessary, which can introduce additional uncertainty into the simulation results. Previous studies have shown that climate data aggregation has little effect on simulation of phenological stages, but effects on net primary production (NPP) might still be expected through changing the length of the growing season and the period of grain filling. This study investigates the impact of spatial climate data aggregation on NPP simulation results, applying eleven different models for the same study region (∼34,000 km²), situated in Western Germany. To isolate effects of climate, soil data and management were assumed to be constant over the entire study area and over the entire study period of 29 years. Two crops, winter wheat and silage maize, were tested as monocultures. Compared to the impact of climate data aggregation on yield, the effect on NPP is in a similar range, but is slightly lower, with only small impacts on averages over the entire simulation period and study region. Maximum differences between the five scales in the range of 1–100 km grid cells show changes of 0.4–7.8% and 0.0–4.8% for wheat and maize, respectively, whereas the simulated potential NPP averages of the models show a wide range (1.9–4.2 g C m⁻² d⁻¹ and 2.7–6.1 g C m⁻² d⁻¹ for wheat and maize, respectively). The impact of the spatial aggregation was also tested for shorter time periods, to see if impacts over shorter periods attenuate over longer periods. The results show larger impacts for single years (up to 9.4% for wheat and up to 13.6% for maize). An analysis of extreme weather conditions shows an aggregation effect in vulnerability up to 12.8% and 15.5% between the different resolutions for wheat and maize, respectively. Simulations of NPP averages over larger areas (e.g. regional scale) and longer time periods (several years) are relatively insensitive to climate data aggregation. However, the scale of climate data is more relevant for impacts on annual averages of NPP or if the period is strongly affected or dominated by drought stress. There should be an awareness of the greater uncertainty for the NPP values in these situations if data are not available at high resolution. On the other hand, the results suggest that there is no need to simulate at high resolution for long term regional NPP averages based on the simplified assumptions (soil and management constant in time and space) used in this study.     

基于NOAA/AVHRR数据的天津地区净初级生产力时空格局分析

本文基于CASA模型,充分考虑植被覆盖类型对光能利用率的影响及植被反照率对净辐射的影响,利用NOAA/AVHRR 1B卫星资料和气象资料估算了天津地区的植被净初级生产力（NPP）。估算结果表明：2007年天津地区植被NPP为3.86×109 gC/a,年平均NPP为335 gC/m2/a;蓟县、宁河与宝坻年NPP估算值居前三位;各季度对NPP总量贡献率依次为：夏季（62％）,秋季（21％）、春季（16％）,冬季（1％）;受物候和气候因素的综合影响,天津地区NPP具有明显的年际变化,利用年均NDVI可以较好地模拟天津地区NPP年总量,其模拟表达式为：     

2000—2012年青海共和盆地植被净初级生产力空间变化特征分析

为了分析青海共和盆地植被初级生产力的变化特征,为该区植被资源管理及相关环境保护政策的制定提供科学依据。基于GIS技术,利用2000至2012年MOD17A3数据集的植物净初级生产力(NPP)数据分析了该地区植被NPP的时空变化特征。结果表明,青海共和盆地植被年均NPP的平均值为103.3 g C/(m²·a),最低为369.3 g C/(m²·a),最高为482.1 g C/(m²·a)。5种植被类型中,草甸年均NPP值最大,为128.8 g C/(m²·a);灌丛的年均NPP值最小,为34.9 g C/(m²·a);与2000年相比,2012年青海共和盆地年NPP大部分地区是增加的,年NPP减少的面积仅占总面积的0.68%;NPP的线性变化趋势以增加为主,NPP呈减少趋势的地区仅占总面积的0.7%,说明该地区的植被状况得到较好的改善。     

新疆石河子58年气温特征分析

为了给石河子垦区农业可持续发展、合理开展农业生产、气候资源利用等提供气候依据,统计分析了新疆石河子1954—2011年58年来年平均气温、月平均气温、年最高和最低气温气候变化特征。结果表明：年平均气温、月平均气温、年最高和最低气温呈上升趋势;石河子各月平均气温也呈上升趋势;石河子年平均气温突变点是1986年,年最高气温突变点是1976年,年最低气温突变点是1981年,并具有各自的周期特征。     

Potential impact of future climate change on sugarcane under dryland conditions in Mexico

Assessments of impacts of future climate change on widely grown sugarcane varieties can guide decision‐making and help ensure the economic stability of numerous rural households. This study assessed the potential impact of future climatic change on sugarcane grown under dryland conditions in Mexico and identified key climate factors influencing yield. The Agricultural Land Management Alternatives with Numerical Assessment Criteria (ALMANAC) model was used to simulate sugarcane growth and yield under current and future climate conditions. Management, soil and climate data from farm sites in Jalisco (Pacific Mexico) and San Luis Potosi (Northeastern Mexico) were used to simulate baseline yields. Baseline climate was developed with 30‐year historical data from weather stations close to the sites. Future climate for three decadal periods (2021–2050) was constructed by adding forecasted climate values from downscaled outputs of global circulation models to baseline values. Climate change impacts were assessed by comparing baseline yields with those in future decades under the A2 scenario. Results indicate positive impacts of future climate change on sugarcane yields in the two regions, with increases of 1%–13% (0.6–8.0 Mg/ha). As seen in the multiple correlation analysis, evapotranspiration explains 77% of the future sugarcane yield in the Pacific Region, while evapotranspiration and number of water and temperature stress days account for 97% of the future yield in the Northeastern Region. The midsummer drought (canicula) in the Pacific Region is expected to be more intense and will reduce above‐ground biomass by 5%–13% (0.5–1.7 Mg/ha) in July–August. Harvest may be advanced by 1–2 months in the two regions to achieve increases in yield and avoid early flowering that could cause sucrose loss of 0.49 Mg ha^?1 month^?1. Integrating the simulation of pest and diseases under climate change in crop modelling may help fine‐tune yield forecasting.     

玛曲草地初级生产力及载畜能力的评价

为了对玛曲县草地初级生产力及载畜能力进行评价,以指导生产,更加合理利用当地天然草地资源。结合运用甘肃省玛曲县野外调查和MODIS遥感影像资料,计算玛曲县及下属各乡的产草量和载畜量,对比分析了理论载畜量和季节牧场载畜量,并进行草地分级。结果表明：导致玛曲县草地生产力变化的主要原因是超载过牧和自然环境如气温升高,年降水量减少,草地日趋干旱缺水等。载畜量变化的逆向走势使草地生产力下降,而自然因素能在一定程度上引起草地荒漠化。因此,必须严格控制载畜量,并以最新的理论载畜量和临界载畜量来界定实际载畜量,以扭转载畜量的逆向走势,遏制草地生产力的下降趋势。     

草地硝化,反硝化微生物功能群研究进展

在全球气候变化的背景下,对于草地土壤中氮素循环的研究更加迫切和重要。温室气体氧化亚氮（N2O）在土壤中主要来自硝化反硝化过程,都由相应地微生物功能群所驱动。为了揭示土壤N2O产生的微生物机制,笔者从近年来草原硝化、反硝化过程相关微生物功能群入手,归纳了全球不同草原生态系统中硝化反硝化微生物功能群的数量,组成及相应的影响机制和地理格局,总结了N2O产生过程的研究进展,分析指出了未来草地土壤微生物研究的热点方向,并对草地N2O产生的微生物机制研究做出了展望。     

Analysis of Symbiotic Environment of Forest and Truffle and Utilization of Truffle Resources

The truffle is a very rare,rich in nutrition,and expensive medicinal and edible fungus,and a large area of truffle is distributed in Europe,Australia,North America,Asia and China.In China,truffle was firstly found in Shanxi.Symbiotic plants of truffle such as oak,lime,hazel,pine,poplar,willow,chestnut,etc.are widely distributed in the province.In Shanxi,brown soil as well as climate types and other natural conditions are very suitable for breeding of truffle.Exploiting truffle resources,expanding forest economy,and increasing peasants' income are good ways of making peasants become rich in mountainous areas of Shanxi Province.     

植被NPP时空变化特征及驱动因子分析——以延安地区为例

基于2000—2009年植被净初级生产力(NPP)数据,结合气候、植被、地形和土壤4个自然因子,利用趋势分析和地理探测器等方法,揭示延安地区NPP时空变化及其驱动力。结果表明：（1）2000—2009年研究区NPP总体上呈波动上升趋势。（2）延安地区NPP的空间分布呈“南高北低”的分布特征。（3）降水、植被类型、高程和气温为延安地区NPP空间分布格局的主要驱动因子,任意2种自然因子交互作用的贡献率均高于单因子。研究区实施的退耕还林工程和气候波动变化是导致NPP年际增加的主要原因,NPP空间分异受多种自然因子的交互影响。开展NPP时空变化及其驱动力研究可为区域生态系统恢复提供理论依据。     

Screening for low grain cadmium phenotypes in sunflower, durum wheat and flax

Cadmium (Cd) level in nonoilseed sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), and durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. var. durum) grown on uncontaminated, alkaline soils has exceeded limits established in Northern Europe. Separate field experiments were conducted to investigate variability of grain Cd levels among sunflower, durum wheat and flax germplasm, and to seek an efficient screening method for future breeding. There were large variations in leaf Cd concentration among 200 sunflower lines. These lines performed more consistently for Cd uptake at the R5 stage than at the V8 stage across 4 locations with markedly differing soils. Cd concentration in V8 leaves was not related to Cd in grain. The positive correlation between R5 leaf Cd and kernel Cd level was obtained from nonoilseed hybrid (Sigco 954) (R²; = 0.74**), and 200 lines (R² = 0.44**) tested over 4 locations in 2 field trials, respectively. This indicates that an efficient and low cost screening method can be developed for genotype selection, but plants must be grown to the R5 stage. A preliminary evaluation of 30 durum wheat and 74 flax lines indicated large variations in grain Cd level of durum wheat and flax. Grain Cd concentration ranged from 0.11 to 0.34 mg Cd kg^-1 DW for durum wheat, and 0.14 to 1.37 mg Cd kg^-1 DW for flax, respectively. This variability indicates that breeding for low grain Cd in durum wheat and flax should be feasible. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

土地利用与覆盖变化对中小城市净初级生产力的影响

为了探索研究当前城市化进程中,土地利用与覆盖变化对中小城市净初级生产力的影响,以张家港为研究区域,利用MODIS遥感影像数据和NPP相关模型,分别估算2008年的实际和潜在的净初级生产力（NPPact和NPPo）,研究土地利用覆盖变化造成NPP损失(NPPlucc)的空间分布。结果表明,在张家港的城市化进程中,由于土地利用和覆盖方式的改变损失了大量的NPP,城市区域年净初级生产量以较大幅度减少;林草生态系统的NPPlucc较低,农业用地由于灌溉、施肥、田间管理等,导致其具有比潜在NPP更高的生产力,在所有用地类型中NPPlucc最低。张家港市的NPPlucc在城乡梯度上的变化呈现出从城市中心到农村纵深地区逐渐下降的趋势,其中在城乡结合部位、在农村工业区有2个上升的峰状突起。研究认为,可通过政策管理措施和工程技术手段,改善对自然生态系统的干扰,进而减少由于土地利用/覆盖变化和人类活动对周边植被干扰造成的NPP损失,是降低人类社会对净初级生产力的占用(HANPP)的可行途径,也是解决人们广泛关注的生物资源耗竭性问题与可持续发展问题的有效手段。     

Nitrogen fertilization of warm‐season turfgrasses irrigated with saline water from varying irrigation systems. 1. Quality,spring green‐up and fall colour retention

A 3‐year study was conducted at New Mexico State University in Las Cruces, NM, to investigate the effects of different fertilization treatments on turf performance when water conservation strategies are applied. These strategies include the use of non‐potable saline irrigation water and the use of efficient subsurface irrigation systems. Two low water use warm‐season grasses, “Princess 77” bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon L.) and “Sea Spray” seashore paspalum (Paspalum vaginatum O. Swartz), were irrigated with either potable [Electrical Conductivity (EC) = 0.6 dS/m] or saline (EC = 3.1 dS/m) water from either an overhead or a subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) system. Four different fertilizers, liquid slow release, granular slow release, granular urea and liquid urea, were applied at two rates: 10 and 20 g N m^?2 year^?1 for “Sea Spray” and 20 and 30 g N m^?2 year^?1 for “Princess 77.” Spring green‐up, summer quality and fall colour retention were determined using digital image analysis, visual quality ratings and normalized difference vegetation index. Generally, subsurface drip‐irrigated grasses were slower to green‐up than overhead irrigated ones. “Sea Spray” irrigated from the SDI system took 18, 28 and 15 days longer to reach 80% green cover in 2010, 2011 and 2012, respectively, than their sprinkler‐irrigated counterparts. The combination of “Princess 77” and overhead irrigation reached 80% green cover 35 (in 2010), 34 (in 2011) and 12 (in 2012) days faster than SDI‐irrigated “Princess 77.” Fertilization rate and type had no effect on summer turfgrass quality of “Princess 77” irrigated from a sprinkler system throughout the research period reaching ratings of greater than 7 during all 3 years. Similar results were observed for “Princess 77” irrigated from a SDI system during 2010 and 2011. Summer quality of sprinkler‐irrigated “Sea Spray” was negatively affected by liquid fertilization. During two of three summers, visual quality of plots fertilized with either liquid slow release or liquid urea was lower than “Sea Spray” fertilized with granular fertilizer. Further research is needed to investigate the effect of fertilization on bermudagrass and seashore paspalum over a wider nitrogen range including both granular and foliar products.     

近52年北疆气候变化对棉花种植气候适宜性分区的影响

基于北疆52个气象台站1961―2012年逐年≥10℃积温、最热月(7月)平均气温和无霜冻期资料,使用Arc GIS空间插值技术对上述各热量要素的空间分布进行模拟,使用线性趋势和年代间比较对近52年各热量要素的变化进行分析,结合棉花气候分区指标,完成了1961―1970年、1971―1980年、1981―1990年、1991―2000年和2001―2012年5个时段的北疆棉花种植气候适宜性分区;并对比分析了各时段宜棉区、次宜棉区、风险棉区和不宜棉区分布区域和面积的变化。结果表明:北疆热量资源的空间分布总体呈现"平原和盆地多,山区少"的特点;在气候变暖背景下,近52年北疆≥l0℃积温、7月份平均气温和无霜冻期分别以每10年75.657℃、0.218℃和4.36 d的斜率呈显著的上升趋势,并且20世纪90年代以来上升速率呈增大趋势。受其影响,近52年,尤其是20世纪90年代以来,北疆宜棉区面积明显扩大,次宜棉区和不宜棉区有所减小,风险棉区变化不大。2001―2012年与20世纪60年代相比,宜棉区面积扩大了6.54164×104 km2;次宜棉区和不宜棉区分别缩小了0.99982×104 km2和5.28675×104 km2。     

近50年气候变化对七星河湿地生态系统自然植被第一性净生产力的影响

自然植被第一性净生产力（Net primary productivity,NPP）可能是对气候变化反应最为敏感的生态环境因素之一,研究气候变化对NPP的影响可为湿地资源的恢复与保护及可持续发展提供理论依据。本研究利用1961-2008年网格插值的七星河湿地逐日气温、降水量资料,采用Miami（R）模型计算植被NPP（NPP地上与NPP总）,并分析气温、降水量、植被干燥指数等对湿地自然植被NPP的影响。结果表明,七星河湿地NPP总与NPP地上的平均值分别为110.36和29.05 DMt/(hm2?a),近50年来湿地NPP总与NPP地上总体上呈增长趋势,年平均上升幅度分别为0.1291和0.0340 DMt/(hm2?a)。湿地自然植被NPP与年平均气温、年生长季平均气温呈较显著正相关,与年降水量、生长季降水量呈极显著负相关,与生长季植被干燥指数呈极显著正相关;当湿地生长季平均气温每升高1 ℃、湿地年降水量每增加1 mm、湿地植被生长季的干燥指数每增加1 ℃/mm,NPP总和NPP地上分别增加了1.5220和0.4006 DMt/(hm2?a)。在水资源较充足的七星河湿地,气温适度升高、降水量略呈减少、气候相对较干燥（水热条件配合较好）的气候条件有利于形成季节性积水的沼泽化湿地,提高植被光合作用率,促进七星河湿地自然植被NPP的增加。近50年的七星河湿地年平均自然植被NPP总约为2.2072×106 t;年平均固碳量为0.8829×106 t。在未来IPCC2000年排放方案SRES-B2（较低排放）情景下,未来七星河湿地自然植被NPP总和固碳量呈下降趋势,与近50年平均值相比,2020、2050和2100年下降幅度分别为5.37%、9.91%和13.59%。     

气候变化对锡林郭勒盟典型草原天然牧草物候期的影响

植物物候能直接反映气候变化的影响,已经成为全球变化研究的热点。利用1954—2012 年内蒙古锡林浩特国家气候观象台气象资料和1986—2012 年典型草原优势牧草克氏针茅(Stipa krylovii Roshev.)物候期观测资料,分析了气候变化对克氏针茅物候的影响。结果表明：近60 年来,锡林浩特典型草原地区平均气温呈极显著上升,降水量微弱减少,日照时数呈极显著增加(P＜0.01),总的气候趋势呈“暖干”性。克氏针茅返青期呈极显著延迟趋势,其它物候期均呈逐年提前趋势,整个物候期呈逐年缩短的趋势。多元逐步回归分析表明,0℃至返青日的累计温度对返青期影响较大;5 月平均气温和牧草返青-抽穗期累计温度对抽穗期影响较大;4 月、6 月降水量对开花期的影响较大;6 月份降水量对成熟期的影响较大;9月份降水量对黄枯期的影响较大。     

1964—2013年天水市热量资源变化及对农业生产的影响

分析天水市主要粮食作物玉米和冬小麦对气候变暖的响应特征,为提高对气候变化的应变能力、减轻气候变暖对农业生产的不利影响和种植结构调整提供参考依据。根据天水市7个国家气象观测站1964—2013年的气温资料,用气候倾向率和Mann-Kendall统计检验方法,对天水市50年来气温变化特征和热量资源进行统计分析;利用天水市1981—2013年玉米和冬小麦产量资料,结合对应时段的气象资料应用SPSS 13.0软件建立回归模拟方程,探讨作物生育期与温度的关系及变化趋势。结果表明,天水市1964—2013年的年平均气温、年平均最高气温、年平均最低气温均呈上升趋势,负积温绝对值呈减少趋势。1994年前后气温发生了突变,进入了显著增暖时期,增暖前后年平均气温升高了0.97℃;各季节的气温变化幅度以春季最大、冬季次之。1994—2013年内相继出现了13个暖冬年份,是近50年中较暖的时期。自1981年以来,冬小麦全生育期天数平均以0.59天/年的速度线性减少,1981—2013年全生育期总天数减少了20天,其中返青期—拔节期、抽穗期—开花期减少趋势分别为0.57天/年、0.16天/年;玉米全生育期1981—2013年减少了5—7天,气候增暖后1994—2013年玉米生长期内平均气温增温变率为0.43℃/10年。气候变暖已对农作物生长发育产生了较大影响。喜温作物和越冬作物种植面积扩大,种植区北界抬升;春播作物玉米播种提前,生殖生长期延长;越冬作物冬小麦推迟播种,春初提前返青,全生育期缩短。     

Impacts and adaptation of European crop production systems to climate change

The studies on anthropogenic climate change performed in the last decade over Europe show consistent projections of increases in temperature and different patterns of precipitation with widespread increases in northern Europe and decreases over parts of southern and eastern Europe. In many countries and in recent years there is a tendency towards cereal grain yield stagnation and increased yield variability. Some of these trends may have been influenced by the recent climatic changes over Europe.A set of qualitative and quantitative questionnaires on perceived risks and foreseen impacts of climate and climate change on agriculture in Europe was distributed to agro-climatic and agronomy experts in 26 countries. Europe was divided into 13 Environmental Zones (EZ). In total, we had 50 individual responses for specific EZ. The questionnaires provided both country and EZ specific information on the: (1) main vulnerabilities of crops and cropping systems under present climate; (2) estimates of climate change impacts on the production of nine selected crops; (3) possible adaptation options as well as (4) adaptation observed so far. In addition we focused on the overall awareness and presence of warning and decision support systems with relevance for adaptation to climate change.The results show that farmers across Europe are currently adapting to climate change, in particular in terms of changing timing of cultivation and selecting other crop species and cultivars. The responses in the questionnaires show a surprisingly high proportion of negative expectations concerning the impacts of climate change on crops and crop production throughout Europe, even in the cool temperate northern European countries.The expected impacts, both positive and negative, are just as large in northern Europe as in the Mediterranean countries, and this is largely linked with the possibilities for effective adaptation to maintain current yields. The most negative effects were found for the continental climate in the Pannonian zone, which includes Hungary, Serbia, Bulgaria and Romania. This region will suffer from increased incidents of heat waves and droughts without possibilities for effectively shifting crop cultivation to other parts of the years. A wide range of adaptation options exists in most European regions to mitigate many of the negative impacts of climate change on crop production in Europe. However, considering all effects of climate change and possibilties for adaptation, impacts are still mostly negative in wide regions across Europe.