Qualitative and quantitative differences in particulate organic matter fractions in organic and conventional farming systems

To quantify functionally important differences in soil organic matter (SOM) that result from use of different farming practices, soils from 9 long-term trials comparing manure+legume-based organic, legume-based organic, and conventional farming systems were collected and particulate organic matter (POM) was fractionated to reflect its position within the soil matrix. The free, light POM (FPOM; <1.6 g cm⁻³) not occluded within aggregates and occluded POM (OPOM; <2.0 g cm⁻³) were compared to an undifferentiated POM fraction (coarse fraction, CF; >53 μm) obtained by wet sieving. Fraction C, N, and hydrolyzable N (quantified using the Illinois test (IL-N)) were determined. Organic farming systems had greater quantities of C and N in the OPOM and CF and, greater IL-N contents in all POM fractions considered. The OPOM's C:N ratio (16-19) and was least in the manure+legume-based organic, intermediate in the legume-based organic, and greatest in the conventional systems (P<0.10). Trends in OPOM C:N and IL-N abundance suggested occluded POM was most decomposed, and possibly a greater N reservoir, in the manured soils. The FPOM quality reflected the residues added to each system and its removal improved resolution of quality-based differences in POM associated with long-term management. Subdivision of POM revealed differences in its quality that were not evident using the undifferentiated CF. Quantification of hydrolysable N (IL-N) in POM did not enhance our understanding of management's affect on SOM quality. This multi-site comparison showed organic management simultaneously increased the size of the labile N reservoir and the amount of POM protected within aggregates; and that, occluded POM is more decomposed in manure+legume- than in legume-based organic systems. The characteristics of POM reveal how organic practices improve SOM and suggest the nutrient and substrate decay dynamics of organic systems may differ as a result of the N fertilization strategies they employ.     

Soil nematode community,organic matter,microbial biomass and nitrogen dynamics in field plots transitioning from conventional to organic management

Dynamics of soil bulk density, organic matter, microbial biomass, nitrogen, and nematode communities were assessed for a period of 4 years in field plots transitioning from conventional to organic farming practices. A rotation of soybeans, corn, oats and hay was used as an organic transitioning strategy and the conventional farming system had a corn and soybean rotation for comparison. Organic corn received raw straw pack beef manure and poultry compost at the rate of 27 and 28 Mg/h, respectively, and organic oats received raw straw pack beef manure and poultry compost at the rate of 18 and 1.8 Mg/h, respectively, while conventional plots received synthetic fertilizers. All crops in the organic system received primary tillage (chisel plow, disked and tined) whereas only corn received primary tillage in the conventional system but soybeans were no-till. Weed control was mechanical (twice diskings, rotary hoeings and row cultivation) in the organic system whereas herbicides were used in the conventional system. Soil bulk density did not differ in the two systems over a 4-year period but organic farming had slightly higher organic matter, mineral associated organic matter and particulate organic matter. Conventional system had more N in the mineral pools as indicated by higher NO₃⁻-N whereas organic system had higher N in the microbial biomass indicating shifts in nitrogen pools between the two systems. Bacterivore nematodes were more abundant in the organic than the conventional system for most of the study period. In contrast, the conventional system had significantly higher populations of the root lesion nematode, Pratylenchus crenatus, than the organic system after completion of the rotation cycle (transition period) in spring 2004. The organic hay plots had the lowest populations of P. crenatus compared to corn, soybeans and oats. Nematode faunal profile estimates showed that the food webs were highly enriched and moderately to highly structured and the decomposition channels were bacterial in both systems. The lack of differences in structure index between the organic and conventional systems is probably due to the excessive tillage in the organic farming system, which may have prevented the build up of tillage-sensitive omnivorous and predatory nematodes that contribute to the structure index. We conclude that transition from conventional to organic farming can increase soil microbial biomass-N and populations of beneficial bacterivore nematodes while simultaneously reducing the populations of predominant plant-parasitic nematode, P. crenatus. Our findings also underscore the potential benefits of reducing tillage for the development of a more mature soil food web.     

Soil fertility in three cropping systems after conversion from conventional to organic farming

Abstract

Temporal changes in the scores of selected soil fertility indices were studied over six years in three different cases of organic crop rotation located in southern, eastern and central Norway. The cropping history and the initial scores of fertility indices prior to conversion to organic cropping differed between the sites. Crop yields, regarded as an overall, integrating fertility indicator, were in all rotations highly variable with few consistent temporal trends following the first year after conversion. On the site in eastern Norway, where conversion followed several years of all-arable crop rotations, earthworm number and biomass and soil physical properties improved, whereas the system was apparently degrading with regard to P and K trade balances and contents in soil. On the other two sites, the picture was less clear. On the southern site, which had a relatively fertile soil before conversion, the contents of soil organic matter and K decreased during the six-year period, but the scores of other fertility indices showed no trends. On the site in central Norway, there were positive trends for earthworm-related indices such as worm biomass and tubular biopores, and negative trends for soil porosity. The results, especially those from the eastern site, illustrate the general difficulty in drawing conclusions about overall fertility or sustainability when partial indicators show divergent trends. Consequently, the study gave no unambiguous support to the initial working hypothesis that organic farming increases inherent overall soil fertility, but rather showed that the effect varied among indicators and depended on status of the cases at conversion. It is concluded that indicators are probably better used as tools to learn about and improve system components than as absolute measures of sustainability.     

Soil microbial biomass and activity in organic tomato farming systems: Effects of organic inputs and straw mulching

Organic farming is rapidly expanding worldwide. Plant growth in organic systems greatly depends on the functions performed by soil microbes, particularly in nutrient supply. However, the linkages between soil microbes and nutrient availability in organically managed soils are not well understood. We conducted a long-term field experiment to examine microbial biomass and activity, and nutrient availability under four management regimes with different organic inputs. The experiment was initiated in 1997 by employing different practices of organic farming in a coastal sandy soil in Clinton, NC, USA. Organic practices were designed by applying organic substrates with different C and N availability, either in the presence or absence of wheat-straw mulch. The organic substrates used included composted cotton gin trash (CGT), animal manure (AM) and rye/vetch green manure (RV). A commercial synthetic fertilizer (SF) was used as a conventional control. Results obtained in both 2001 and 2002 showed that microbial biomass and microbial activity were generally higher in organically than conventionally managed soils with CGT being most effective. The CGT additions increased soil microbial biomass C and activity by 103-151% and 88-170% over a period of two years, respectively, leading to a 182-285% increase in potentially mineralizable N, compared to the SF control. Straw mulching further enhanced microbial biomass, activity, and potential N availability by 42, 64, and 30%, respectively, relative to non-mulched soils, likely via improving C and water availability for soil microbes. The findings that microbial properties and N availability for plants differed under different organic input regimes suggest the need for effective residue managements in organic tomato farming systems.     

Soil microbial biomass and organic matter composition in soils under cultivation

To determine whether there is a relationship between the composition of soil organic matter and the activity of the soil microbial biomass, the composition of the organic matter in 12 typical arable soils in Northwest Germany was investigated by wet chemical analysis and CPMAS cross polarization magic angle spinning ¹³C-NMR spectroscopy. The data were correlated with the microbial biomass as estimated by substrate-induced respiration. A strong correlation between the microbial biomass and alkylic C compounds was observed (r=-0.960^***). Recalcitrant substances were enriched in this fraction, which were classified as humic acids according to the wet chemical procedure. The microbial decomposition of these humic acids is probably retarded, due to their chemical structure and/or physical bonding, when the soil microbial biomass activity is limited.     

有机栽培和常规栽培水稻体系土壤酶及微生物量的比较研究

本研究探讨了有机栽培与常规栽培体系下水稻土微生物量及脲酶、酸性磷酸酶和过氧化氢酶的动态变化过程,以及有机栽培体系不同肥料调控措施对上述指标的影响.结果表明:与常规栽培水稻体系相比,有机栽培水稻有利于土壤微生物的生长和繁衍;水稻生长不同时期有机栽培方式的土壤微生物生物量碳、脲酶、酸性磷酸酶和过氧化氢酶活性均高于常规栽培体系.就水稻全生育期而言,土壤微生物生物量碳高于常规栽培7.3%～9.1%;脲酶、酸性磷酸酶和过氧化氢酶活性分别高于常规栽培7.3%～14.5%、5.2%～6.5%和12.5%～29.2%;有机水稻栽培体系下配施生态肥,在有机肥施用量减半时,土壤微生物生物量碳含量及土壤脲酶、酸性磷酸酶和过氧化氢酶活性较单施有机肥平均分别提高1.6%、6.8%、1.3%和14.8%,在水稻生长前期和中期该增加作用尤为显著.     

Soil microbiome biomass,activity, composition and CO2 emissions in a long-term organic and conventional farming systems

The implementation of environmentally friendly agricultural policies has increased the need to compare agricultural aspects of conventional (CON) and organic farming (ORG) systems. The objective of the present work was to compare the effects of an organic and conventional long-term experiment on bacterial and fungal biomass and activity, as well as soil CO₂ emission and readily available nitrogen forms in a soil cultivated with Helianthus annuus L. The microbial biomass was more active and abundant in ORG as well as soil CO₂ emission. Despite being less abundant, fungi were more active than bacteria in both ORG and CON experiments. 16S rRNA gene sequencing showed that the ORG treatment had a significantly greater bacterial richness than CON. Cyanobacteria, Actinobacteria and Proteobacteria were the most abundant phyla contributing more than others to the differences between the two systems. Moreover, the soil ${\mathit{NH}}_4^{+}$ and ${\mathit{NO}}_2^{-}$ content was not significantly different between ORG and CON, while ${\mathit{NO}}_3^{-}$ was less in ORG. ORG sunflower yield was significantly less compared with CON. While much remains to be discovered about the effects of these agricultural practices on soil chemical properties and microbial diversity, our findings may contribute to this type of investigation.     

Relation between soil organic matter and yield levels of nonlegume crops in organic and conventional farming systems

The aim of this study was to evaluate the interaction between yield levels of nonleguminous crops and soil organic matter (SOM) under the specific conditions of organic and conventional farming, respectively, and to identify implications for SOM management in arable farming considering the farming system (organic vs. conventional). For that purpose, correlations between yield levels of nonlegume crops and actual SOM level (C_org, N_t, C_hwe, N_hwe) as well as SOM‐level development were examined including primary data from selected treatments of seven long‐term field experiments in Germany and Switzerland. Yield levels of nonlegume crops were positively correlated with SOM levels, but the correlation was significant only under conditions of organic farming, and not with conventional farming treatments. While absolute SOM levels had a positive impact on yield levels of nonlegumes, the yield levels of nonlegumes and SOM‐level development over time correlated negatively. Due to an increased demand of N from SOM mineralization, higher yield levels of nonlegumes obviously indicate an increased demand for OM supply to maintain SOM levels. Since this observation is highly significant for farming without mineral‐N fertilization but not for farming with such fertilization, we conclude that the demand of SOM‐level maintenance or enhancement and thus adequate SOM management is highly relevant for crop production in organic farming both from an agronomical and ecological point of view. Under conventional management, the agronomic relevance of SOM with regard to nutrient supply is much lower than under organic management. However, it has to be considered that we excluded other possible benefits of SOM in our survey that may be highly relevant for conventional farming as well.     

Soil organic matter, microbial biomass and enzyme activities in a tropical agroforestry system

 The effects of growing trees in combination with field crops on soil organic matter, microbial biomass C, basal respiration and dehydrogenase and alkaline phosphatase activities were studied in soils under a 12-year-old Dalbergia sissoo (a N₂-fixing tree) plantation intercropped with a wheat (Triticum aestivum) – cowpea (Vigna sinensis) cropping sequence. The inputs of organic matter through D. sissoo leaf litter increased and crop roots decreased with the increase in tree density. Higher organic C and total N, microbial biomass C, basal soil respiration and activities of dehydrogenase and alkaline phosphatase were observed in treatments with tree-crop combination than in the treatment without trees. Soil organic matter, microbial biomass C and soil enzyme activities increased with the decrease in the spacing of the D. sissoo plantation. The results indicate that adoption of the agroforestry practices led to an improved organic matter status of the soil, which is also reflected in the increased nutrient pool and microbial activities necessary for long-term productivity of the soil. However, tree spacing should be properly maintained to minimize the effects of shading on the intercrops. Received: 21 February 1997     

Organic matter returns to soils must be higher under organic compared to conventional farming

The aim of this paper is to discuss the demand of fresh organic matter (FOM) supply to maintain soil organic matter (SOM) levels and productivity of arable soils under organic management. The basic question is whether the different frame conditions in organic vs. conventional farming result in a different and system‐specific FOM demand. If this is the case, it would follow that the farming system has to be considered in the calculation of SOM balances. SOM balances are the most common decision support tools in organic matter management. A conversion to organic farming in practice usually leads to an increase of SOM levels as well as soil microbial activity over time. The system‐specific driver of this effect is the indispensable extension of the share of (perennial) legumes in crop rotations at the expense of non‐legumes such as cereals, row crops, and maize. Extended legume cropping is essential for N supply in crop rotations as the import of N fertilizer in total is limited by organic farming regulations and mineral N fertilizer may not be used at all. Based on this characteristic of organic management, we argue that the demand of FOM supply to soils must be higher than in conventional crop production. The most relevant factors are (1) the non‐existence of mineral N fertilizer as an external N source that supports the maintenance of SOM by decreasing the demand for SOM‐N, (2) benefits of increasing SOM stocks and turnover for soil productivity under organic management, and, (3) increased mass‐losses of FOM and easily degradable SOM compartments due to higher microbial activity in soils. These effects have to be quantified and must be considered in SOM balances in order to avoid misleading assessments and erroneous decisions.     

Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy for determination of organic matter fractions including microbial biomass in coniferous forest soils

The objective of this work was to investigate the usefulness of near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) in determining some C and N fractions of soils: labile compounds, microbial biomass, compounds derived from added ¹³C- and ¹⁵N-labelled straw. Soil samples were obtained from a previous experiment where soils were labelled by addition of ¹³C- and ¹⁵N-labelled wheat straw and incubated in coniferous forests in northern Sweden (64-60°N) and south France (43°N). The incubation lasted three years with 7-9 samplings at regular time steps and four replicates at each sampling (204 samples). Samples were scanned using a near infrared reflectance spectrophotometer (NIRSystem 6500). Calibrations were obtained by using a modified partial least squares regression technique with reference data on total C and N, ¹³C, ¹⁵N, control extract-C, -N, -¹³C and -¹⁵N, fumigated extract-C, -N, -¹³C and -¹⁵N, biomass-C, -N, -¹³C and -¹⁵N contents. Mathematical treatments of the absorbance data were first or second derivative with a gap from 4 to 10 nm. The standard error of calibration (SEC)-to-standard deviation of the reference measurements ratio was ≤0.2 for 10 models, namely total C and N, ¹³C, ¹⁵N, control extract-C, fumigated extract-C and -N, biomass-C and -N and biomass-¹⁵N models and therefore considered as very good. With an R²=0.955, the fumigated extract-¹⁵N model is also good. The standard error of performance calculated on the independent set of data and SEC were within 20% of each other for all the best equations except for the biomass-¹⁵N model. The ability of NIRS to detect ¹³C and ¹⁵N in total C and N and in the extracts is noteworthy, not because of its predictive function that is not really of interest in this case, but because it indicates that the spectra kept the signature of the properties of the organic matter derived from the straw even after two- or three-year decomposition. The incorporation of the ¹³C in the biomass was less well predicted than that of the ¹⁵N. This could indicate that the biomass derived from the straw was characterised by a particular protein or amino acid composition compared to the total biomass that includes a large proportion of dormant micro-organisms. The predictive ability of NIRS for microbial biomass-C and -N is particularly interesting because the conventional analyses are time consuming. In addition, NIRS allows detecting analytical errors.     

Response of soil organic matter fractions and composition of microbial community to long-term organic and mineral fertilization

The effects of organic and mineral fertilization on four soil organic matter (SOM) fractions (non-protected, physically protected, chemically protected, and biochemically protected) and microbial community composition were investigated by sampling soil of a 35-year-long fertilization experiment. The SOM fractions were investigated by combined physical and chemical approaches, while microbial community composition was determined by phospholipid fatty acid analysis (PLFA). Organic C (SOC) was primarily distributed within the microaggregate-protected particulate organic matter (iPOM) and the hydrolysable and non-hydrolysable silt-sized (H-Silt, NH-Silt) fractions, which accounted for 11.6–16.9, 23.4–28.9, and 25.4–30.6% of the total SOC content, respectively. The contributions of these “slow” fractions (iPOM, H-Silt, NH-Silt) to the increased SOC were 178–293, 118–209, and 85–109% higher after long-term sole manure or manure in combination with inorganic N fertilization compared with unfertilized soil (control). The combination of manure and mineral fertilizers increased the coarse and fine non-protected C (cPOM and fPOM) contents much more (34.1–60.7%) than did manure alone. PLFAs, bacteria, G (+) bacteria, and actinomycete abundances were the highest in soil with manure, followed by soil treated with manure combined with mineral N. The addition of inorganic and organic fertilization both altered the microbial community composition compared with the control. All SOM fractions contributed to 81.1% of the variance of the PLFAs-related microbial community composition by direct and indirect effects. The change in coarse unprotected particulate organic matter (cPOM) was the major factor affecting soil microbial community composition (p < 0.001). Our study indicates that physical, chemical, and biochemical protection mechanisms are important in maintaining high SOC level after the addition of manure. A close linkage between soil microbial community composition and cPOM suggests that C availability is an important factor for influencing microbial composition after long-term inorganic and organic fertilization.     

Soil organic matter fractions as sources of plant-available sulphur

Pot culture experiments are described which attempt to identify the organic fractions of soil sulphur that decompose during the growing season to provide plant-available sulphur.Soil organic matter was labelled with ³⁵S by incubating soil with labelled sulphate and several organic sulphur fractions were determined before and after the growth of Sorghum vulgare and following a fallow treatment. The effect of moisture stress on the uptake of sulphur by plants was also investigated; this treatment had little effect.Changes occurred in both hydriodic acid-reducible and carbon-bonded sulphur fractions, 60 per cent of the sulphur taken up by the plants being derived from the latter. The changes in carbon-bonded sulphur involved changes in both Raney nickel-reducible and non-reducible sulphur fractions. All of the sulphur fractions investigated thus contributed available sulphur for plant uptake, and none of them are likely to be of any value for predicting the sulphur requirements of plants.     

Soil organic matter dynamics under grain farming in Northern Kazakhstan

Because of their ability to store a high amount of soil organic matter (SOM), Chernozem soils are one of the most important resources from both agricultural and environmental viewpoints. This study was carried out to determine the SOM budget under grain farming in the Chernozem soil of northern Kazakhstan through the analysis of in situ soil respiration and soil environmental factors such as soil temperature as well as moisture content. Five experimental plots including one fallow field were established at the experimental farm of Barayev Kazakh Research and Production Center of Grain Farming, Shortandy, northern Kazakhstan (mean annual precipitation and average year temperature are 323 mm and 1.6°C, respectively). Mean daily soil temperature increased to above O°C in early April, remaining at above 20°C from mid-June to mid-August, and then sharply decreased to below 5°C at the end of September. Most of the biological activities were considered to be limited from April to September. On the other hand, the soil moisture content remained high after thawing until mid-June and then continuously decreased in the cropped plots except during the rainfall events. The soil respiration rate recorded the highest values from late June to early July and overall fluctuations were similar to those of the soil temperature, unlike the fluctuations of soil microbial C and N contents, which exhibited similar patterns to those of the soil moisture content. In order to represent the daily soil respiration rates using the soil environmental factors, the following relationship was introduced as a model function: Cem = aM ^pbexp(-E/RT). The coefficients, a, b, and E (activation energy in Arrhenius equation), were determined by stepwise multiple regression after logarithm transformation using the measured data, Cem (daily soil respiration rate), M (volumetric soil moisture content), and T (absolute soil temperature). As a result, a significant relationship was always obtained between the soil respiration rate and the activation energy, E, while the contribution of the soil moisture content to the soil respiration rate was uncertain. Using the regression equations and monitored data of soil temperature and moisture content, cumulative soil respiration throughout the cropping period was calculated to be in the range of 2.5 to 3.2 Mg C ha^p-1 On the other hand, the amounts of crop residues in the cropped plots that were expected to be incorporated into the soils ranged from 1.6 to 4.4 Mg C ha^p-1 Except for the plot planted with oats (higher amounts of residues than for wheat), the SOIL budget was slightly negative in this year, that is, the soils lost their organic matter stock. Although it is difficult to generalize the C budget in different years because of the large variations in crop growth due to fluctuating water resources, the disadvantage of summer fallow (no residues) was obvious in terms of SOM budget. The net soil respiration rate in the fallow plot, 2.9 Mg C ha^p-1 was approximately equivalent to 4% of the total SOM stock in the plow layer (30 cm) (70 to 80 Mg C ha^p-1 To reduce further loss of SOM, at least evenly extensive use of summer fallow should be reconsidered.     

Influence of the rhizosphere on microbial biomass and recently formed organic matter

We have aimed to quantify the effect of roots on the size of the soil microbial biomass, and their influence on the turnover of soil organic matter and on the extent of the rhizosphere. We sampled a sandy clay loam topsoil from two subplots with different treatment histories. One had a normal arable fertilization record, the other had received only inorganic nitrogen fertilizer but no phosphorus and potassium for 30 years. Glucose labelled with ¹⁴C was added to both samples which were then incubated for 4 weeks before the soil was packed in cylinders and planted with ryegrass. In both soils, microbial biomass at the root surface doubled during the first 8 days. At day 15, the microbial biomass had further increased in the fertile soil, and the rhizosphere effect had extended 2.5 mm into the fertile soil, but to only 1 mm in the infertile soil. The microbial ¹⁴C increased threefold near the roots in the fertile soil as a result of assimilation of previously formed microbial residues, but in the infertile soil there was no increase. There was a close relation between the increase in microbial ¹⁴C and a decrease in ¹⁴C soluble in 2 m KCl, indicating that the microbial residues were more weakly adsorbed in the fertile soil. We conclude that the increased microbial population living near the root surfaces re‐assimilated part of the ¹⁴C‐labelled microbial residues in the fertile soil. In the infertile soil, microbial residues resisted decomposition because they were more strongly sorbed on to soil surfaces.     

Soil microbial biomass and mineralization of carbon and nitrogen in ecological, integrated and conventional forage and arable cropping systems

 In a cropping systems experiment in southeastern Norway, ecological (ECO), integrated (INT) and conventional (CON) forage (FORAGE) and arable (ARABLE) model farms were compared. After 5 experimental years, topsoil was sampled in spring from spring grain plots and incubated for 449 days at controlled temperature (15  °C) and moisture content (50% water-holding capacity). There were no detectable differences between model farms in terms of total soil C or N. For INT and CON, however, values of microbial biomass C and N, microbial quotient (C_mic/C_org), and C and N mineralization were, or tended to be, higher for FORAGE than for ARABLE. For the ECO treatment, values were similar for FORAGE and ARABLE and did not differ significantly from that of CON-FORAGE. For INT and CON, the metabolic quotient (qCO₂) was lower for FORAGE than for ARABLE. Again, for the ECO treatment, values were similar for FORAGE and ARABLE and did not differ significantly from that of CON-FORAGE. We estimated the sizes of conceptual soil organic matter pools by fitting a decomposition model to biomass and mineralization data. This resulted in a 48% larger estimate for CON-FORAGE than for CON-ARABLE of physically protected biomass C. For physically protected organic C the difference was 42%. Moreover, the stability of soil aggregates against artificial rainfall was substantially greater for CON-FORAGE than for CON-ARABLE. On this basis, we hypothesized that the lower qCO₂ values in the FORAGE soils were mainly caused by a smaller proportion of active biomass due to enclosure of microorganisms within aggregates. Altogether, our results indicated a poorer inherent soil fertility in ARABLE than in FORAGE rotations, but the difference was small or absent in the ECO system, probably owing to the use of animal and green manures and reduced tillage intensity in the ECO-ARABLE rotation. Received: 28 October 1998     

Soil microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen as affected by cropping systems

 The impacts of crop rotations and N fertilization on microbial biomass C (C_mic) and N (N_mic) were studied in soils of two long-term field experiments initiated in 1978 at the Northeast Research Center (NERC) and in 1954 at the Clarion-Webster Research Center (CWRC), both in Iowa. Surface soil samples were taken in 1996 and 1997 from plots of corn (Zea mays L.), soybeans (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), oats (Avena sativa L.), or meadow (alfalfa) (Medicago sativa L.) that had received 0 or 180 kg N ha^–1 before corn and an annual application of 20 kg P and 56 kg K ha^–1. The C_mic and N_mic values were determined by the chloroform-fumigation-extraction method and the chloroform-fumigation-incubation method, respectively. The C_mic and N_mic values were significantly affected (P<0.05) by crop rotation and plant cover at time of sampling, but not by N fertilization. In general, the highest C_mic and N_mic contents were found in the multicropping systems (4-year rotations) taken in oats or meadow plots, and the lowest values were found in continuous corn and soybean systems. On average, C_mic made up about 1.0% of the organic C (C_org), and N_mic contributed about 2.4% of the total N (N_tot) in soils at both sites and years of sampling. The C_mic values were significantly correlated with C_org contents (r≥0.41**), whereas the relationship between C_mic and N_tot was significant (r≤0.53***) only for the samples taken in 1996 at the NERC site. The C_mic : N_mic ratios were, on average, 4.3 and 6.4 in 1996, and 7.6 and 11.4 in 1997 at the NERC and CWRC sites, respectively. Crop rotation significantly (P<0.05) affected this ratio only at the NERC site, and N fertilization showed no effect at either site. In general, multicropping systems resulted in greater C_mic : C_org (1.1%) and N_mic : N_tot (2.6%) ratios than monocropping systems (0.8% and 2.1%, respectively). Received: 9 February 1999     

Nitrogen fertilization increases rhizodeposit incorporation into microbial biomass and reduces soil organic matter losses

Agricultural soils receive large amounts of anthropogenic nitrogen (N), which directly and indirectly affect soil organic matter (SOM) stocks and CO₂ fluxes. However, our current understanding of mechanisms on how N fertilization affects SOM pools of various ages and turnover remains poor. The δ¹³C values of SOM after wheat (C₃)-maize (C₄) vegetation change were used to calculate the contribution of C₄-derived rhizodeposited C (rhizo-C) and C₃-derived SOM pools, i.e., rhizo-C and SOM. Soil (Ap from Haplic Luvisol) sampled from maize rhizosphere was incubated over 56 days with increasing N fertilization (four levels up to 300 kg N ha^?1), and CO₂ efflux and its δ¹³C were measured. Nitrogen fertilization decreased CO₂ efflux by 27–42% as compared to unfertilized soil. This CO₂ decrease was mainly caused by the retardation of SOM (C₃) mineralization. Microbial availability of rhizo-C (released by maize roots within 4 weeks) was about 10 times higher than that of SOM (older than 4 weeks). Microbial biomass and dissolved organic C remained at the same level with increasing N. However, N fertilization increased the relative contribution of rhizo-C to microbial biomass by two to five times and to CO₂ for about two times. This increased contribution of rhizo-C reflects strongly accelerated microbial biomass turnover by N addition. The decomposition rate of rhizo-C was 3.7 times faster than that of SOM, and it increased additionally by 6.5 times under 300 kg N ha^?1 N fertilization. This is the first report estimating the turnover and incorporation of very recent rhizo-C (4 weeks old) into soil C pools and shows that the turnover of rhizo-C was much faster than that of SOM. We conclude that the contribution of rhizo-C to CO₂ and to microbial biomass is highly dependent on N fertilization. Despite acceleration of rhizo-C turnover, the increased N fertilization facilitates C sequestration by decreasing SOM decomposition.