Fecal coliform dispersal by rain splash on slopes

The movement of fecal pathogens from land to surface and ground water are of great interest because of the public health implications. Non-structural best management practices that control the timing, volume, and placement of animal manures are commonly used to limit opportunities for fecal pathogens to enter water bodies. Increased infiltration capacity, water and waste diversions, and vegetated filter strips are used to control fecal pathogen movement in surface runoff. Fecal pathogens transported by rain splash could conceivably bypass physical barriers. The relationship between slope angle and the transport of fecal coliform bacteria by rain splash was studied. It was hypothesized that there would be a significant down slope transport of fecal coliform bacteria by raindrops falling on a bare soil surface inoculated with fecal coliform bacteria. Slopes from 0° to 40.8° were studied. The mean splash distance for fecal coliforms was less than 50 mm in all directions at 0° slope and more than 500 mm in the downslope direction on a 40.8° slope. Maximum splash distances ranged from about 400 mm on the horizontal surface to more than 1900 mm in the downslope direction on the 40.8° slope. Sequential downhill movement of fecal coliform (FC) bacteria by repeated rain splash could transport FC directly to water bodies or areas of saturation excess where they will become entrained in overland runoff. Further studies on raindrop and rainfall characteristics, as well as surface cover and soil characteristics, will be necessary to more fully understand the mechanisms of FC transport on sloping land by rain splash.     

Freshwater mussels as monitors of bacteriological water quality

A species of commercially obtained freshwater mussel (Elliptio complanata) was shown to actively filter, concentrate, and retain fecal coliform (FC) bacteria from a variety of freshwater stream environments. Fecal coliform densities in mussel viscera were maximum within 48 hr of in situ exposure. Significant FC reproduction did not occur in mussel viscera at temperatures below 30 °C. Variation in replicate FC determinations from mussels exposed in situ for 48 hr was less than that obtained directly from water samples. Numbers of FC concentrated in mussel viscera were retained for several hours after FC densities declined in the surrounding water, suggesting the utility of mussels to record recent episodes of fecal pollution.     

Fecal coliform densities in a Western watershed

This paper describes the areal distribution of fecal coliform densities within the stream system of the South Platte River basin in Colorado. Low densities, e.g., 0 to 99 fecal coliforms per 100 ml, were found in mountain streams, while higher densities, e.g., 10000 to 100000 and above were found in plains streams. About 49 % of the plains stations and 3 % of the mountain stations were not in compliance with the Colorado secondary contact recreation standard of 2000 fecal coliforms per 100 ml. The higher fecal coliform densities were associated with discharges from wastewater treatment plants. This is significant from a public health standpoint since the tainted waters are spread throughout the South Platte basin to irrigated lands via streams, canals, and reservoirs. Because of current federal and state policy encouraging land treatment and reuse, such practice should be reviewed with respect to compliance with proposed fecal coliform standards, and whether such standards should be adopted.     

Indicator bacteria concentrations as affected by hydrologic variables in the Apalachicola river,Florida

Concentrations of fecal coliform and fecal Streptococcus bacteria were monitored in the Apalachicola River, Florida, at various river stages. Bacteria transported by the river may eventually be assimilated by estuarine filter feeders, including shellfish. Sources along the river contributed to relatively high coliform and coliform: Streptococcus ratios at a few sites upstream, but there was a general decreasing trend in coliform numbers in a downstream direction. The data suggested that coliform densities depend not only on discharge, but also on factors such as whether the river stage is rising or falling, whether the flood is in an early or late phase, and the volume of the current peak relative to earlier peaks. A regression model indicated that 53 % of fecal coliform variability could be accounted for by river discharge and 32% could be accounted for by other hydrologic characteristics of the flood.     

Three-component model of runoff generation,Lysina catchment,Czech Republic

The forested Lysina catchment is situated in an area very susceptible to acid deposition. The stream water is characterized by extremely high concentrations of total dissolved Al (volume weighted mean 66 Μmol L^?1) and H⁺ (average pH=3.87). In a simple two-component model, the surface runoff component contributes only 6% of runoff in winter and 4% of runoff in summer. During flood episodes, the direct runoff contributes up to 20% of streamflow. There is a strong positive correlation between stream acidity and stream discharge. The observed exponential increase in streamwater acidity with discharge during high flow periods cannot be explained by the simple two-component model. A three-component model used for hydrograph separation is based on chemical and¹⁸O analysis of precipitation, soil water and runoff. It incorporates a soil water component along with groundwater and rainfall components in streamwater generation. Dissociated organic acids leached during the flow of water through the uppermost soil horizon help to balance an apparent anion deficit. The apparent anion deficit was found to increase exponentially with flow rate. Low variability in streamwaterδ ¹⁸O corresponds to a high contribution of indirect components (i.e., soil and ground water) in the runoff. The soil water contribution to indirect runoff calculated from the apparent anion deficit of streamwater, varied from 0 at base flow up to 80% during floods. On average, 40% of the streamwater is derived from soil water (from 31 to 39% in winter and from 47 to 54% in summer).     

Transport Of Fecal Bacteria From Poultry Litter and Cattle Manures Applied to Pastureland

Land applications of manure from confined animal systems and direct deposit by grazing animals are both major sources of bacteria in streams. An understanding of the overland transport mechanisms from land applied waste is needed to improve design of best management practices (BMPs) and modeling of nonpoint source (NPS) pollution. Plots were established on pasturelands receiving phosphorus-based livestock waste applications to measure the concentrations of Escherichia coli (E. coli), fecal coliform (FC), and Enterococcus present in overland flow at the edge of the field. The flow-weighted bacteria concentrations were highest in runoff samples from the plots treated with cowpies (1.37×10⁵ colony forming units (cfu)/100 ml of E. coli) followed by liquid dairy manure (1.84×10⁴ cfu/100 ml of E. coli) and turkey litter (1.29×10⁴ cfu/100 ml of E. coli). The temporal distribution of fecal bacterial concentrations appeared to be dependent upon both the animal waste treatment and the indicator species, with peak concentrations occurring either at the beginning of the runoff event or during peak flow rates. BMPs could be selected to reduce peak flows or first flush effects depending upon the litter or manure applied to the land. The commercial Biolog System was used to identify the dominant species of Enterococcus present in the cowpie source manure (Enterococcus mundtii 55%) and in the runoff collected from the transport plots treated with cowpies (Enterococcus faecalis 37%). The identification of predominant species of Enterococcus that are associated with specific sources of fecal pollution could greatly assist with identifying the origins of NPS pollution.     

Reducing Potential Leaching of Phosphorus, Heavy Metals, and Fecal Coliform From Animal Wastes Using Bauxite Residues

Long-term applications of animal manures to agricultural fields have caused serious environmental concerns over release of excessive nutrients, heavy metals, and fecal coliforms into waterbodies. An alternative is to control nutrient bioavailability of animal manures before their land application. In this study, two types of bauxite residues (red mud and brown mud) were evaluated for their potential use in reducing leachability of phosphorus (P), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) as well as fecal coliform and NH₃ release from animal manures. Poultry litter and cattle manures collected from production farms were mixed with bauxite residues at mixing rates of 11%, 22%, and 50%. Bauxite residues were effective in suppressing the leaching of water-soluble P, As, Cu, and Zn from animal manures. At 22% mixing rate, brown mud reduced water-extractable P by 40% and 70% from chicken litter and cattle manure, whereas red mud reduced water-extractable P by 27% and 55%, respectively, in five successive extractions. Amending manures with bauxite residues also decreased populations of fecal coliform. Bauxite residues did not increase NH₃ release despite its relatively high pH. The results suggest that bauxite residues could be used as a potential amendment for reducing P and other contaminant leaching in animal manures and improve the application of both wastes for beneficial use.     

1959-2000年妫水河流域气候变化与水文响应分析

基于北京延庆县东大桥气象水文站观测的气温、降水和径流数据,采用Thornthwaite水文模型和Mann—Kendall突变与趋势检验法,对该站点所控制的部分妫水河流域的年平均气温和降水进行长期趋势检验和突变分析,同时对模型模拟的径流、蒸散量、土壤含水量进行长期趋势检验和突变分析。结果表明:1980—2000年与1959—1979年相比,研究区气温升高了2.45%,降水量减少了8.57%,地表径流减少了8.86%,实际蒸散量降低了8.54%,土壤含水量减少了76.95%。20世纪50年代以来,研究区一致表现为气温升高和降水减少。径流、实际蒸散量、土壤含水量也随之减少,并在1975年左右发生突变,整体表现出干旱化倾向。气候变化已经对区域水循环产生重要影响。     

Comparison of Fecal Coliform Before and After Wastewater Treatment Facility: a Case Study near a Coastal Town in the Southeastern USA

A central wastewater treatment facility was built in 1997 for the town of Suwannee that eliminated 850 inadequately operating on-site sewage treatment and disposal systems. During a study in 1989?C1990, Salmonella were detected in Suwannee River water samples upstream and downstream of the town of Suwannee. This study presents the findings of fecal coliform distribution between the years 1996 and 2009 in canals and the main stem of Suwannee River near the town of Suwannee, a coastal area in southeastern USA. Fecal coliforms were measured and assessed to evaluate the water quality before and after the installation of the central wastewater treatment facility. In the canals nearby the town of Suwannee, significant differences in fecal coliform concentrations were detected between the samples collected before and after the operation of the central wastewater treatment facility. Average fecal coliform of 537 most probable number (MPN)/100?ml in the canals in 1996 was reduced to 218?MPN/100?ml after the operation of wastewater treatment facility. The fecal coliform levels in canals decreased significantly in the last 13?years. Even though the average fecal coliform levels in the river was reduced from 170 to 86?MPN/100?ml before and after the installation of the wastewater treatment facility, respectively, the difference was not statistically significant.     

Sediment production following severe wildfire and post-fire salvage logging in the Rocky Mountain headwaters of the Oldman River Basin,Alberta

In 2003, the Lost Creek fire burned 21,000 ha of nearly contiguous crown land forests in the headwater regions of the Oldman River Basin, Alberta. Seven small watersheds with various levels of land disturbance (burned, post-fire salvage logged, unburned) were instrumented and monitored for four years to measure stream discharge, sediment concentration, and sediment yields for a range of dominant flow periods characteristic of the region (baseflow, spring melt, and stormflow). Stream discharges reflected runoff regimes consistent with high regional precipitation and the high relief physiographic setting of the study area. Suspended sediment concentrations and yields were significantly higher in both burned and post-fire salvage logged watersheds than in unburned watersheds and were strongly influenced by topographic and hydro-climatic controls. Sediment availability was much higher in both the burned and post-fire salvage logged watersheds but it varied strongly with flow condition, particularly during the snowmelt freshet and high flow events. Because of increases in wildfire frequency and severity over recent decades, understanding the range of impacts from both wildfire and post-disturbance management strategies such as salvage logging is likely to become increasingly important for land managers.     

The use of clams as bioindicator of fecal pollution in seawater

The coastal waters of Kuwait are widely used for bathing during the long summer season. In order to assess the water quality along the beaches, a new approach was developed. It involves the use of clam, Circenita callipyga, as a bioindicator for seawater pollution by fecal coliform bacteria (FC), antibotic resistant fecal coliform (ABR-FC) and Salmonella spp. These organisms were detected in clam and water samples and the efficiency of clam in concentrating Salmonella was confirmed. The number of FC and ABR-FC in clam and water samples were compared and a higher number was detected in clams than in water. Five isolates of Salmonella from clams were also multidrug resistant. The data suggests that clam can be used as a bioindicator of seawater pollution and is preferable to direct testing of water. The resistance to antibiotics in E. coli isolated from water and clams collected at the same time and site was of similar pattern and was determined by R-plasmid.     

Development of Regression-Based Models to Predict Fecal Bacteria Numbers at Select Sites within the Illinois River Watershed, Arkansas and Oklahoma, USA

The Illinois River Watershed is a multi-facet basin with ecological and economic importance to its local stakeholders in northwest Arkansas and northeast Oklahoma, USA. The numbers, transport and sources of fecal bacteria in streams was identified as a research priority of the USDA NRI Water and Watershed Program in 2006, and the objective of this study was to evaluate the relation between fecal bacteria and other measured physicochemical parameters in water samples collected from selected sites throughout the Illinois River Watershed. An existing database (i.e., National Water Information Systems, NWIS) from the US Geological Survey (USGS) was used in this project. The data obtained includes discharge, pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, Escherichia coli (E. coli), fecal coliform, and fecal streptococci among several other physic-chemical parameters. A synthetic model, based on multi-regression analysis, was developed to predict fecal bacteria numbers at these selected sites based on available USGS NWIS data, and the multiple regressions were significant at almost every site for all three bacteria groups. However, the physicochemical parameters used in the equations were very different across sites and fecal bacteria groups, suggesting that the development of such predictive models is site and bacteria group specific even within one watershed.     

Amounts and relative significance of runoff types in the transport of nitrogen into a stream draining an agricultural watershed

The concentration and amounts of NO₃-N and TN transported in surface, accelerated subsurface, and subsurface runoff and stream flow draining a 20 ha pasture watershed were measured over a period of 3 yr. A slight decrease and increase of NO₃-N and particulate N concentrations, respectively, were obtained with increased flow of the runoff types and stream, due to dilution and increased sediment transport, respectively. The concentration of NO₃-N in surface, accelerated subsurface and subsurface runoff and stream flow averaged for the 3 yr was 0.3, 6.6, 4.8, and 4.6 mg 1^?1, respectively, amounting to 0.5, 9.4, 11.6, and 16.8 kg ha^?1 yr^?1, respectively, transported annually. Although NO₃-N accounted for only a minor proportion of the TN transported in surface runoff (10%) it was the main form of N (75%) transported in the other runoff types and in streamflow. Subsurface runoff contributed the major proportion of stream discharge (63%), and NO₃-N (69%), particulate N (44%) and TN (65%) loading of the stream. The results are discussed in terms of non-point pollution of surface waters by NO₃-N.     

窟野河流域径流变化及人类活动对其的影响率

利用王道恒塔、温家川2个水文站的实测降水、径流资料,应用M—K秩相关系数、R/S分析、降水—径流双累积曲线法等多种数值模型方法,分析了窟野河径流年际变化特征、径流变化趋势、降水变化以及人类活动对径流变化的影响。结果表明:(1)窟野河流域多年径流变化呈下降趋势,20世纪末以来尤为明显。(2)王道恒塔和温家川2个水文站的Hurst指数分别为0.853和0.803,表明未来一段时间内窟野河年径流变化趋势将与过去保持同一势态,有持续递减的特征。(3)不同历史阶段,人类活动的剧烈程度不同,对径流量减少的影响亦不同。影响最剧烈的阶段为1997—2010年,该阶段人类活动对径流减少的影响所占比例在2个水文站分别高达80.48%和93.62%。人类活动的加剧是导致窟野河径流量锐减的主要原因。     

Phosphorus inputs into a stream draining an agricultural watershed

Changes in the concentrations of P forms with flow for the three runoff types and the stream draining an agricultural watershed were evaluated. Flow was found to be more important than concentration in determining P fluxes in surface runoff, subsurface runoff, the stream, and to a lesser extent in accelerated subsurface runoff (tile drainage). The sampling interval required to reliably evaluate the loading of P forms was 15, 60, 720, and 60 min, for surface, accelerated subsurface, and subsurface runoff, and the stream, respectively. The errors in estimates of loadings of P forms were maintained at less than 15% for the sampling time intervals selected. An inadequate frequency of sampling leads to appreciable errors in the estimates of loadings of P forms in the runoff types and the stream.     

Evaluation of Two Techniques: mFC AND mTEC for Determining Distributions of Fecal Pollution in Small,North Carolina Tidal Creeks

Most tidal creeks in North Carolina are closed or partially closed to shellfishing. These creeks often remain closed due to the inability to determine sources of fecal pollution. This study was designed for intensive fecal coliform monitoring of Futch Creek, N.C., to try and determine sources(s) of fecal pollution. Futch Creek is a mildly polluted tidal creek, with marginal levels of fecal coliforms and could potentially be reopened. Problems in interpreting levels of fecal coliforms and pollution risks are two fold and were extremely pronounced in this study. First, several environmental factors have been shown to influence levels of fecal coliforms. Therefore, effects of temperature, salinity, tidal cycles, and rain events on fecal coliform counts were examined. There were higher fecal coliform levels in the warmer temperatures. There was a strong inverse relationship with salinity, with highest fecal coliform counts in the 10–14 g L^-1 range for both the mFC and mTEC counts with no apparent source of pollution. This trend was also observed in three other tidal creeks. Tidal cycles did affect fecal coliform counts with substantially higher counts during low tide and appeared to be more important than rain events. It is apparent that when evaluating several stations in a creek, samples must be taken during the same tidal cycle stage in order to have comparative data. Counts obtained using the mTEC method were consistently higher than mFC counts in all salinity ranges. Basic taxonomic tests were performed on fecal coliforms isolated from three salinity regimes: 0 g L^-1, 10–14 g L^-1, and 23–26 g L^-1. The mFC method in the 10–14 g L^-1 (45%) and 23–26 g L^-1 (70%) salinity range had the highest incidence of false-positive counts (non E. coli). The mTEC method also had the highest incidence of false-positive counts in the 23–26 g L^-1 (27%) and 10–14 g L^-1 (24%), none as high as the mFC method. Therefore, the mTEC method appears to be the better of the two but is still not an ideal approach.     

近40年塔里木河流域水沙演变及其空间分异特征

为探究塔里木河流域自然条件和人类活动改变造成的河流水沙变化,依据1980—2020年塔里木河干流阿拉尔站,源流玉龙喀什河控制水文站同古孜洛克站、叶尔羌河卡群站、阿克苏河新大河站和开都河焉耆站的实测径流和输沙资料,利用Mann-Kendall检验、Pearson相关性分析和Pettitt非参数检验等方法,分析了近40年塔里木河流域水沙演变及其空间分异特征。结果表明:在1980—2020年期间塔里木河流域同古孜洛克站、阿拉尔站、卡群站、焉耆站径流量显著增加,新大河站、同古孜洛克站、阿拉尔站径流量出现突变点,分别在1992年、1999年、2000年,突变后较突变前增长18.23%,18.10%,62.15%; 卡群站和同古孜洛克站的输沙量没有显著变化趋势,阿拉尔站、新大河站和焉耆站的输沙量都显著减少,突变点都在2001年,突变后较突变前降低36.73%,30.50%,68.31%。塔里木河水沙分布具有显著的空间差异,源流四站控制区的径流深存在南北空间上的差异,北部源于天山的阿克苏河和开都河径流深低于南部源于喀喇昆仑山的叶尔羌河和玉龙喀什河,从上游向下游输沙模数降低,径流主要受降雨和气温差距影响,而泥沙差异则是由于植被覆盖度变化。在上游三源流汇入干流的区间内,年平均消耗径流量98.21亿m³,径流深167.31 mm,淤积泥沙量4 424.15万t,淤积模数753.69 t/(km²·a)。对塔里木河四源一干径流泥沙实测数据的分析结果证明了塔里木河近期综合治理工程总体上取得了良好的生态环境效益。     

Phosphorus inputs into a stream draining an agricultural watershed

The amounts of P forms transported in surface, accelerated subsurface, and subsurface runoff, and the stream draining a 20 ha area of a pasture watershed were measured for 3 yr. Stream-bank erosion and resuspension of stream sediment contributed the major proportion of the particulate P (PP), total P, and sediment transported annually in stream flow (86, 77, and 74%, respectively, in 1977). In addition, 29% of the annual dissolved inorganic P (DIP) loading of the stream in 1977 was attributed to the release of P from suspended in situ particulate material. Remarkably similar proportions of water, P forms, and sediment were contributed by the runoff types in each of the 3 yr of study. Subsurface runoff contributed the major proportion (67% in 1977) of stream flow. Although surface runoff contributed only a minor proportion of stream flow (11% in 1977), it contributed the major proportion of both DIP (32% in 1977) and PP loading (90% in 1977) compared with the other runoff types. Differences in the amounts of P forms transported in the three runoff types can be attributed to several factors, one of the most important being the time of contact between soluble P in runoff waters and soil components.     

近60年湘江流域水沙特性及其对人类活动的响应

湘江流域人类活动对湘江水沙变化具有显著影响。利用M-K次序法、Pettitt非参数检验法和双累积曲线法分析湘江干支流1953-2014年的年径流量、汛期径流量和非汛期径流量与输沙量的关系,并分析水土保持和水库建设等人类活动与水沙演变的关系。结果表明:1)湘江干支流水文站的年径流量、汛期径流量与输沙量的相关性强,且1990年后湘潭站径流量-输沙量的相关系数为0.83,而非汛期相关性较弱。1990年前,干流站点径流量和输沙量处于波动状态,1990年后干流站点径流量总体呈增加趋势,但输沙量呈减小趋势,且老埠头站的输沙量发生微幅突变。除个别站点之外,支流站点的径流量和输沙量发生突变的年份与变化规律均一致。2)水土保持以及水库建设对湘江流域的拦沙作用是输沙量减少的主要原因。相比支流,水土保持对湘江干流流域的输沙量减少影响更显著,水库建设与湘江干支流输沙量减少均密切相关。3)根据湘江流域输沙量突变点可划分A(1960-1987年)、B(1988-1996年)、C(1997-2013年)3个时期,在不考虑温度变化的影响下,以A时期1960-1987年为基准期,利用累积量斜率变化率比较法可知,相比基准期A时期,B、C时期水土保持和水库拦沙等人类活动对输沙量的减少的贡献率为88.58%和94.01%,人类活动为输沙量减小的主要因素。     

黑河流域上游水沙变化特征及成因分析

[目的]研究黑河流域上游干流的水沙时空变化特征及其成因,为流域生态保护和水资源开发利用提供科学依据。[方法]选取黑河上游干流主要水文站近60a的实测径流、输沙及降雨资料,通过采用Mann-Kendall秩相关检验法、累积距平法和相关分析法,研究水沙变化特征及驱动因子。[结果]黑河上游干流径流量总体上从20世纪80年代以后呈增加趋势;输沙量从20世纪70年代开始呈不显著增加趋势,但莺落峡水文站输沙量从2001年开始呈显著下降趋势。[结论]降水增加是影响黑河上游径流量增多的重要原因;水土流失导致了札马什克站和祁连站输沙量的增加,而水库拦沙是莺落峡水文站输沙量显著减少的主要原因。