Mapping the territory: agroforestry awareness among Washington State land managers

There is growing interest in research to develop potential agroforestry models for temperate climates. In Washington State, recent studies and anecdotal information suggest that agroforestry is already employed by land managers, and if so, this experience should inform future research efforts. Because this population is not well defined, a mail survey was designed to: 1) Assess Washington land manager awareness of agroforestry, 2) assess perceptions of agroforestry as a land management tool, 3) assess the perceived potential opportunities or obstacles for land managers to practice agroforestry, and 4) identify landowner groups believed to be practicing agroforestry in Washington State.Three groups of land managers were surveyed: employees of the Soil Conservation Service (SCS), Washington State University Cooperative Extension Service (WSUCE) and OTHER, consisting of university faculty, private land managers, State and Federal land managers and owners of small natural resource businesses.Agroforestry was not a new concept for most (94%) respondents, further 55% of those familiar with agroforestry were practicing agroforestry or providing advice to landowners who were practicing agroforestry. Use in (government mandated) soil conservation plans on farmland (100% of all respondents) was the most frequently cited potential application for agroforestry in the state followed by range and pasture land and managing non-commercial forest land (both 84%), use on commercial forest plantation (83%) and fruit and nut orchards (61%).Diversifies land use (25%), enhanced productivity (18%), aesthetics (13%) and income diversity (13%) were the four most frequently cited potential advantages to practicing agroforestry. Lack of information (28%), lack of technical assistance (18%), establishment costs (14%) and not an established practice (14%) were the most frequently identified potential obstacles to practicing agroforestry. Respondents suggested there is great potential for application of agroforestry throughout the state, and non-industrial private forest land owners were selected for future study of this potential.     

FAO initiatives in agroforestry training in Latin America

In response to the request of its member countries from the Latin America and the Caribbean to help promote agroforestry, FAO has initiated a number of activities in the region. These include a regional project Demonstration and Training in Agroforestry in Latin America, an International Workshop on the Formulation of a Project on Demonstration and Training in Agroforestry for the Amazon, held in January 1993, and the project Participative Forestry Development in the Andes. Currently, FAO assistance to the countries of the region in their efforts to promote agroforestry include The Latin American Technical Cooperation Network on Agroforestry Systems, FAO's country-specific technical cooperation projects, and assistance in obtaining development-bank loans through missions of the FAO Investment Center.     

Vertikalbewegungen Rickettsiose-kranker Larven vonAmphimallon solstitiale (LINNAEUS),Anomala dubia aenea (DE GEER) undMaladera brunnea (LINNAEUS)(Col., Lamellicornia)

Zusammenfassung DurchRickettsiella melolonthae (Krieg) PHILIP infizierte Maikäfer-Engerlinge wandern während des Spätherbstes und Winters im Freiland absterbend auf die Erdoberfläche. Als Begleitarten inMelolontha Larvenpopulationen kamen im Gebiet vor:Amphimallon solstitiale (L.),Anomala dubia aenea (DeG.) undMaladera brunnea (L.). MitR. melolonthae künstlich infiziert, zeigten sie im Orientierungsversuch die gleiche Aufwanderungstendenz wie kranke Maikäferengerlinge, am deutlichsten die vonM. brunnea. Auf dem Waldboden fanden sich kranke Larven dieser Art in einigen Fällen.

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Summary Larvae ofMelolontha spp. infested withRickettsiella melolonthae (Krieg) PHILIP move during October– January to the top of the soil where they eventually die. Larvae ofAmphimallon solstitiale (L.),Anomala dubia aenea (DeG.) andMaladera brunnea (L.) are susceptible forR. melolonthae, too. In experiments, artificially infested individuals showed a similar tendency to move upward. This was most pronounced inM. brunnea, of which some infested larvae were found on the forest floor.

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Résumé Larves du hanneton, infectées parRickettsiella melolonthae (Krieg) PHILIP, se rendent à la surface de la terre au fin de l'automme et dans l'hivers. Comme espèces accompagnant les populations larvaires deMelolontha nous avons trouvés:Amphimallon solstitiale (L.),Anomala dubia aenea (DeG.) etMaladera brunnea (L.). Ils out démonstré, après une infection artificielle avecR. melolonthae, la mème tendence dans les essais d'orientation comme les vers blancs malades deMelolontha. Le phé nomène etait le plus prononcé parmi les larves deMaladera. De cette espèce nous avons trouvés plusieurs larves malades à la surface de la terre en plein champs.

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Rickettsiella melolonthae (Krieg) Philip Melolontha- . . Melolontha- :Amphimallon solstitiale (L.),Anomala dubia aenea (De G.) Maladera brunnea (L.). R. melolonthae , Melolontha-, M. brunnea. .

     

Die neuesten Erkenntnisse der forstlichen Entomologie in der Tschechoslowakei

Summary Present development of forestry entomology in the SSRThis article gives an outline on the occurrence of the more important harmful forest insects in the SSR in the year 1950–1962 and on the results of their study. The Norway spruce suffered from the year 1954 notably byIps typographus L. The control was based on insecticides, studies included optimal density of natural regeneration at the mass propagation etc. It was found, for instance, that typical density borings in bark (151–300 borings per 1 sq.m. of bark) shows variation in the shortest distance between borings from 54–70 mm. Relation between density of borings and their distance indicates function y = a.x^–b, (constant a = 476,9 and constant b= 0,38). It was further found thatIps typographus L. shows even sister generations twice in a year (about 60%, eventually even 30% females of the preceding population). Sister laying is conditioned mainly climatically, i.e. also by the forest stand elevation above sea level. A secure control of further harmful species of Norway spruce,Trypodendron lineatum (Ol.) was carried out by extirpation of wintering beetles in soil, eventually by treating of round wood by emulsions on the HCH + DDT basis.Cephaleia abietis L. shows two diapause periods in a larval stage. For this reason, the development of this species lasts prevailingly two years (90% population). Swarming imagines are controlled by chemical aerosols (10% DDT in the dosis 4–8 kg/ha). On obtained from eggsTrichogramma cephalciae Hochm. et Mart. which cannot be grown on eggs of butterflies. Investigations found that the clean eating ofZeiraphera diniana Guen. begins at the density of 300 caterpillars per one meter of long branch. Chemical control (aerosol 10 l/ha) is recommended when feeding is repeated for three years. The mass propagation ofBupalus piniarinus L. appeared on the Scotch pine. The critical number amounts 400 caterpillars per one kg of needles.Hylobius abletis L. is controlled by insecticides in trap barks and by underground traps for concentration of egg laying. Oak was injuried mostly by the rollerTortrix viridana. The critical number is one caterpillar per one bud. Other, in the SSR new harmful insect of oakArchips crataegana (Hb.) showed the critical number 100 egg heaps on the stem to the height of 2 m. The eggs of the above mentioned species showedTrichogramma embryophagum cacoeciae March., which can easily be grown on butterfly eggs. Oak 60–200 years old was attacked byApethymus biaccatus (Gmel.) andA. abdominalis (Lep.). Silver fir was harmed mainly by the rollerChoristoneura murinana (Hb.). Also the critical number was found. Egg rearing gaveTrichogramma minutum Ril. Ash indicates new type of bark injuries caused probably by a representative of the genusLestes (Fig. 1.). Poplars are damaged by the species of the familyCerambycidae, further byCryptorrhynchus lapathi L. and by the species of the familyAegeridae. Saperda carcharias L. has in the Czechoslovak conditions a generation of three years. Eggs overwinter.Cryptorrhynchus lapathi L. has in the southern Moravia mostly (70% population) one year generation, the rest shows a generation of two years. Beech and hornbeaum were harmfully attacked byErannis aurantiaria Hb.) andColotois pennaria (L.). It is obvious that in the year 1950–1962 several species (Alchips crataegana (Hb.),Apethymus braccatus (Gmel.),A. abdominalis (Lep.) on oak,Erannis aurantiaria (Hb.) andColotois pennaria (L.) on. hornbeam and oak,Pachynematus scutellatus Htg. on Norway spruce etc.) previously not known as important forest injurious insect, appeared as calamity species. Further it is obvious that some harmful insects probably under the influence of changed structure and also forest stand microclimate are retreating whereas other species show mass outbreak. For this reason it is necessary to study the lawfulness of the propagation of the individual species.

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Résumé Les plus récentes expériences de l'entomologie en TchécoslovaquieLe travail contient un aperçu concernant la présence d'insectes nuisibles forestiers de certaine importance en Tchécoslovaquie au cours des années 1950–1962 ainsi que le résultat de leur recherche. Jusqu'à 1954 l'épicéa a été assaili surtout par l'Ips typogiaphus L. On cherche une solution de la défense au moyen des insecticides, la densité optimale d'attaque en cas de la reproduction excessive etc. Par exemple il a été constaté que lors de la densité typique de forage de l'écorce (151–300 forages par mètre carré d'écorce) leur distance ré ciproque varie de 54 à 70 mm. Le rapport entre la densité de forage et de leurs distances présente la forme de fonction y = a.x^–b, où la constante a = 476,9 et la constante b = 0,38. Ensuite il a été constaté qu'en ce qui concerne l'Ips typogiaphus L. existent même deux gé nérations-soeurs au cours de l'année (environ 60 % respectivement encore 30 % des femelles de la population pécédente). La production de pondaisonsoeur est soumis surtout au facteurs climatiques, c'est à dire même á l'altitude des peuplements. Contre un antre parasite de l'épicéa, leTrypodendron lineatum (Ol.), une certaine défense fut élaborée par l'extermination d'imagos hivernant dans le sol ou par le traitement de rondin par des émulsions sur la base HCH + DDT. En ce qui conceme laCephaleia abietis L. on a constaté deux phases de diapause en état de larve. C'est pourquoi le développement duparasite est en majorité biennal (90% de la population). II a été introduit une lutte chimique contre l'essaimage d'imagos par des aerosols (10% de DDT dans une dose de 4 à 8 kg par ha). On a réussi à faire sortir des oeufs de laTrichogramma cephalciae Hochm. et Mart. que l'on ne peut pas cultiver sur les oeufs de papillons. En ce qui concerne laZeiraphera diniana Guen. il fut constaté que la défoliation compléte a lieu par 300 chenilles sur une branche d'un métre de longueur. La lutte chimique est recommandée en cas d'attaque repétée au cours de trois ans. Sur des pins il fut constaté la multiplication de masse duBupalus piniarius L. où le chiffre critique et atteint par 400 chenilles sur un kg d'aiguilles. En ce qui concerne l'Hylobius abietis L. on élabora une manière de défense en utilisant des insecticides dans des pièges d'écorce et des pièges souterrains pour saisir les pondaisons. Sur le chêne c'était laTortrix viridana qui a causé les plus grands dé gâts. Le chiffre critique est exprimé par une chenille pour un bourgeon. En ce qui concerne l'ulté rieur parasite de chêne nouvellement apparu en Tchécoslovaquie, l'Archips crataegana (Hb.), le chiffre critique fut fixé par 100 agglomérations ovulaires sur le tronc jusqu'à 2 mètres de hauteur. On a obtenu laTrichogramma embryophagum cacoeciae March., qui peut être facilement cultivée sur les oeufs de papillons. Sur les chênes d'un âge de 60 à 200 sont apparus ensuite comme parasite desApethymus braccatus (Gmel.) et desApethymus abdominalis (Lep.). Sur le sapin apparaît surtout laChoristoneura murinana (Hb.). Un chiffre critique fut fixé. On a obtenu à partir des oeufs laTrichogramma minutum Ril. On a découvert sur le frêne un nouveau type de lésion de l'é corce provoqué vraisemblablement par la libellule g.Lestes (Fig. 1). Les capricornes, leCryptorrhynchus et lesSesia spp. sont nuisibles aux peupliers. En Tchécoslovaquie laSaperda carcharias L. a une géneration triennale. Les oeufs hivernent. LeCryptorrhynchus lapathi L. a en Moravie du Sud en majorité (70% de la population) une génération annuelle, le restant, biennale. Ensuite sur le hêtre et sur le charme a eu lieu l'apparition désastreuse de la chenille arpenteuseErannis aurantiaria (Hb.) et de laColotois pennaria (L.). Il en ressort donc qu'au cours des années 1950–52 plusieurs espèces ont fait une apparition désastreuse:Archips crataegana (Hb.),Apethymus biaccatus (Gmel.),Apethymus abdominalis (Lep.) sur le chêne,Erannis aurantiaria (Hb.) etColotois pennaria (L.) sur le charme et le hêtre, lePachynematus scutellatus Htg. sur l'épicéa et d'autres qui é taíent auparavent inconnus comme parasites considérables de la forêt.On peut en déduire qu'évidemment sous l'influence de la structure transformée et par consé quent du microclima des peuplements, certains parasites tendent à disparaître, tandis que d'autres insectes deviennent parasites désastreux. C'est pourquoi une recherche approfondie des lois de la reproduction en masse des différentes espèces est nécéssaire.

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- 1950–1962. . 1954. Ips typographus L. , , . . , (151–300 1 ² ) 54 70 . y = a x^–b, a = 476,9 b = 0,38. , Ips typographus L. ( 60%, 30% ). , . . . Trypodendron lineatum (01.) , HCH + DDT. Cephalia abietis (L.) , (90% ). (10% 4–8 (). Trichogramma cephalciae Hochhm. & Mart., . Zeiraphera diniana Guen. 300 1 . . . ( 10 /) . Bupalus piniarius L., 1 400 . Hylobius abietis L. . Tortrix viridana L. 1 1 . , ,Archips crataegana (Hb.) 100 2 . Trichogramma embryophagum cacoeciae March., . 60–200 Apethymus braccatus (Gmel.) Apethymus abdominalis (Lep.). Choristoneura murinana (Hb.). . Trichogramma minutum Ril. - Lestes (. 1). , .Saperda carcharias L. . .Cryptorrhynchus lapathi L. (70% ) , . Erannis aurantiaria (Hb.) Colotois pennaria (L.). , 1950–1962. (Archips crataegana (Hb.),Apethymus braccatus (Gmel.),Apethymus abdominalis (Lep.), Erannis aurantiaria (Hb.) Colotois pennaria (L.), Pachynematus scutellatus Htg. . .), . , , . .

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Herrn Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dr. A. Pfeffer zum 60. Geburtstag gewidmet.     

Die Massenvermehrung des Hagebuchenspanners,Himera pennaria L., 1962 in Niederösterreich und im Burgenland und die Ursachen des Zusammenbruches der Kalamität

Summary The Outbreak of Himera pennaria L. in 1962, in Lower Austria and Burgenland, and Causes of its break-down.The Hornbeam Measuring Worm,Himera pennaria L., hitherto described but once in forest-entomological literature as a bigscale forest pest, performed mass-attacks in 1962 in the Leitha hills (1500 acres) and Maria-Ellend wood, even clean-eating several hardwood species, especially hornbeam and also oak. The outbreak which occurred about mid-May broke perfectly down as soon as early June. The paper characterizes several bionomical and morphological data obtained during the course of the outbreak from individual development stages, also discussing the possible causes of the outbreak illustrated by climatograms. In conclusion, the biotical factors of the breakdown are treated, pointing out a virus disease (cytoplasmic polyhedrosis of mesenteron) as playing the greatest part. Along withH. pennaria L., alsoHibernia defoliaria L.,Hibernia aurantiaria Esp., andCheimatobia brumata L., as well as 4 species ofNoctuidae and 1 species ofArctiidae occurred rather frequently in the above-mentioned area, especially in the marginal zones of the Hornbeam Measuring Worm's mass-attack.

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Résumé La gradation de l'Arpenteuse du Charme —Himera pennaria L. — en 1962, en Basse-Autriche et au Burgenland, et les causes de la débâcle de la calamité.L'Arpenteuse du Charme,Himera pennaria L., signalée une seule fois dans la litérature entomologique forestière comme ravageur en masse, s'est manifestée en dimensions calamiteuses en 1962, dans les montagnes du Leitha (600 ha) et au bois de Maria- Ellend, dépouillant — par endroits même de leur feullage eiitier — différentes espèces de bois feuillus, surtout des charmes mais aussi des chênes. La gradation qui s'était manifestée vers la mi-mai, subit une débacle complète dès le début de juin. Le mémoire présente quelques données bionomiques et morphologigues, obtenues au cours de la gradation, sur les différentes phases du développement, tout en discutant à l'aide de climatogrammes quelles pourraient être les causes de la gradation. En conclusion, on traite spécialement les facteurs biotiques de la débâcle, parmi lesquels une maladie à virus (polyédrose cytoplasmique du mésentère) a joué le premier rôle. Em même temps que l'Himera pennaria L., les insectes suivants ont été trouvés dans le territoire en question, le plus fréquemment dans les zones marginales de l'aire de grádation de l'Arpenteuse du Charme:Hibernia defoliaria L.,Hibernia aurantiaria Esp.,Cheimatobia brumata. L., 4 espèces de Noctuides et l espéce d'Arcttides.

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Himera pennaria L. 1962 . . . . ,Himera pennaria L., -- , 1962 . (600 .) , , . , , . , , , . , ( ). H. Pennaria L. Hiberia defoliaria L., Hibernia aurantiaria Esp., Cheimatobia brumata L., 4 Noctuidade 1 Arctiidae, .

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Herrn Prof. Dr. A. Acatay zum 60. Geburtstag gewidmet.

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Die Untersuchungen erfolgten in Zusammenarbeit mit der Landesforstinspektion für Niederösterreich, speziell mit der Bezirksforstinspektion Wien-Umgebung und der Landesforstinspektion für das Burgenland, wofür an dieser Stelle herzlichst gedankt sei.

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Für Herstellung der mikroskopischen Präparate sei Frl. H. Meldt, für die Freilandaufnahmen und mikroskopischen Aufnahmen Herrn N. Maisner bzw. Herrn O. Baschny der Forstlichen Bundesversuchsanstalt Mariabrunn, für die Aufnahmen der elektronen-mikroskopischen Präparate Herrn Hayek vom Physikalisch-chemischen Institut der Universität Innsbruck gedankt.     

The role of extension in agroforestry development: evidence from western Kenya

The extension strategy used by the CARE International in Kenya Agroforestry Extension Project (AEP) is described. This strategy is evaluated in terms of documented changes in farmer's agroforestry practices and the importance of AEP relative to other changes in economic incentives, institutional support, and land use and tenure rules for agroforestry. The project served mainly to increase awareness of the multipurpose potential of agroforestry, expand available technical options, and strengthen local institutions. Its community-based extension approach was more suitable for local conditions than commodity-based, training-and-visit, farming systems, or media-based extension. Projects are encouraged to tailor extension design to local circumstances, use community participation to guide extension priorities, and use extensionists as catalysts and information brokers.Research undertaken while the author was a Principal Scientist at the International Council for Research in Agroforestry, Nairobi, Kenya.     

Neuere Beobachtungen und Untersuchungen zur Kartierung von Pflanzenschädlingen

Summary In the introduction a historical survey is given about the development of the registration service of pests. It can be seen that originally informations of the appearance of pests was mostly given by agricultural and horticultural experts in special journals of agriculture and horticulture.It is well known that a registration service was set up when a Plant Protection Organisation was foundet. Its efficiency has never ceased since its beginnings. These efforts are foundet intensionally to register the existence of pests as completely as possible.The registration service starting first of all from the damage caused by the pests maybe well understood.Our research work being a continuous contribution to the systematic registration of pests generally shows in a number of examples the heterogeneous character of the problem which must be studied concerning the individual pests and difficulties which arise. This is shown with regard to someElaterides and also because of experiments withLaspeyresia funebrana Tr. during several years.In accordance withKirchner and F. P.Müller, Rostock, we propose to register systematically a number of pests on index cards according to uniform principles in the whole of Europe, to register the vertical and horizontal appearance of pests with the same measure, in the same periods of classification and in the same way (seeAuersch 1 to 3).We are encouraged to do so by a number of appreciated views of specialists from Germany and foreign countries however it is, not enaugh to see the great importance of the card index (card-register) and to acknowledge its practicability, but it can only prove its efficiency if it is generally introduced.The systematic registration of pests will enable us to gather in the course of time empirical data, the reliability and evidence of which will steadily increase.

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Résumé On commence par livrer un aperçu historique sur le développement du système de rendre compte relativement aux plantes nuisibles. En lisant ces comptes rendus on peut reconnaître que les rapports donnés au début sur l'apparition des plantes nuisibles furent livrés en substance par la pratique agricole et jardinière par des revues spéciales de l' agriculture et de l'horticulture.Il est connu qu'avec l'établissement du service pour la protection des plantes on a établi un service de comptes rendus, au perfectionnement duquel on a travaillé dès son existance.Ces efforts furent influencés et activés par l'idée de saisir l'apparition des plantes nuisibles aussi complétement que possible. Le service des comptes rendus s'est orienté d'abord en première ligne aux dommages produits, ce qui est aisé à comprendre.Puisque notre traité doit être en général une contribution ultérieure à la connaissance systématique de l' apparition des plantes nuisibles, on explique au moyen de plusieurs exemples, comment sont différentes les questions se rapportant aux plantes nuisibles individuelles, questions qu'il faut ainsi prendre en considération et quelles difficultés en résultent. Cela est démontré pour quelques élatérides de même que sur la base d'examinations exécutées pendant plusieurs années avecLaspeyresia funebrana Tr.En concordance avecKirchner et F. P.Müller, Rostock, nous proposons de saisir systématiquement en classeurs à fiches une série de plantes nuisibles selon des points de vue uniformes, cela veut dire d'enregistrer dans les fiches proposées l'apparition verticale et horizontale des plantes nuisibles avec des mesures égales, dans les mêmes périodes d'examen et appréciation des qualités productives du sol et dans la même manière (voireAuersch 1 à 3).Nous sommes encouragés à faire ces propositions avant tout par des assentiments à notre disposition, qui nous ont été envoyés de la part des cercles compétents de notre pays et de l'é tranger. Il ne suffit pas cependant de reconnaître le fichier dans sa signification variée et d'apprécier son utilisation; le fichier peut faire ses preuves plutôt seulement, s'il est introduit en général. Au cours du temps il sera possible d'obtenir des valeurs expérimentelles par le fichement systématique des plantes nuisibles, dont la sûreté et faculté de déposition augmente constammant avec la durée de leur existence.

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õ . : . . . . õ . . , . Elateriden uLaspeyresia funebrana Tr. . . . , , , . . ( 1 3.) . . , . . .

     

Effects of stilbenes from bark of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Picea glehnii</Emphasis> (Sieb. et Zucc) and their related compounds against feeding behaviour of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Reticulitermes speratus</Emphasis> (Kolbe)

The effects of stilbene glucosides and related compounds on termite feeding behavior were investigated using paper disc methods against the subterranean termite Reticulitermes speratus. The stilbene-rich fraction and isorhapontin (3-methoxy-3,4, 5-trihydroxystilbene-3--d-glucoside) from bark extracts of Picea glehnii showed avoidance by termites in choice tests. In the no-choice tests using compounds purified from the stilbene-rich fraction, the largest feeding deterrent effect was observed for piceid (3,4,5-trihydroxystilbene-3--d-glucoside), followed by isorhapontin, and astringin (3,3,4,5-tetrahydroxystilbene-3--d-glucoside), at the concentrations from 0.63 to 2.5µmol/disc. No change in activity was observed at retentions of more than 5.0µmol/disc. When the activities of isorhapontin and its aglycone derivative (isorhapontigenin: 3-methoxy-3,4,5-trihydroxystilbene) were compared with that of taxifolin (3,3,4,5,7-pentahydroxyflavanone) in the no-choice test, the stilbenes exhibited a larger antifeedant potential. Methylation of isorhapontigenin increased its termiticidal activity.Part of this study was presented at the 32nd Annual Meeting of the International Research Group on Wood Preservation, 2001     

Rüsselkäferschäden an verschiedenen Nahrungspflanzen

Zusammenfassung Das Ausmaß des Fraßes vonHylobius abietis L. und die dadurch verursachte Sterblichkeit wurde in Zwingern und einem Feldversuch an verschiedenen Pflanzentypen studiert. In beiden Versuchen waren die größ eren Pflanzentypen häufiger befallen als die kleineren Pflanzen. Im Zwingerversuch war auch der durchschnittliche Fraß an den größeren Pflanzen stärker. Kiefern und Fichten waren im Gesamtdurchschnitt gleich häufig und gleich stark befallen. Dagegen war die Sterblichkeit unter den Kiefern wesentlich höher als unter den Fichten. Die Empfindlichkeit verschiedener Pflanzentypen für Fraßschäden wurde als Index aus der prozentualen Sterblichkeit und dem mittleren Ausmaß des Fraßes pro befallener Pflanze bestimmt. Danach waren die kleineren Pflanzen im allgemeinen wesentlich empfindlicher als großere Pflanzen und Kiefern empfindlicher als Fichten. Zucht der Pflanzen während einer Vegetationsperiode im Treibhaus erhöhte nicht ihre Anfälligkeit für Russelkäferschäden.

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Summary In cages and a field experiment the degree of feeding by the pine weevilHylobius abietis L. and the plant mortality caused by the attack were studied in different types of conifer plants. The plants of the larger types were more often attacked than the smaller plants in both experiments. In the cages the mean degree of feeding was also higher for the larger plants. In the total mean Scots pine and Norway spruce were attacked with the same frequency and in the same degree. The plant mortality, however, was considerably larger in pine than in spruce. The sensitivity of different plant types to feeding damage was determined as an index from the percentage plant mortality and the mean degree of feeding per attacked plant. The index showed a generally higher sensitivity in smaller plant types than of larger ones. Pine was more sensitive than spruce. Breeding of plants in a plastic greenhouse during one vegetation period did not raise their disposition towardsHylobius-attack.

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Résumé Le dégré de nutrition de l'Hylobius abietis L. et la mortalité due à l'attaque ont été étudiés en cages et dans une expérience en plein champ chez différentes espèces de conifères. Dans les deux expériences, les plus grandes plantes ont été attaquées plus souvent que les moins grandes. Dans les cages la quantité moyenne de nutrition a aussi été plus considérable pour les grandes plantes. La fréquence et la force des attaques ont été les mmes chez les pins et les épicéas. Par contre la mortalité a é té notablement plus élevée chez les pins. La sensibilité des différentes plantes aux dégâts de nutrition a été exprimée comme un index et determinée à partir du taux de mortalité des plantes et du degré moyen de nutrition par plante attaquée. L'index a montré en général une plus grande sensibilité chez les moins grandes plantes que chez les plus grandes. La sensibilité du pin a été plus grande que celle de l'épicéa. La culture des plantes en serre pendant une période de végétation n'augmente pas leur disposition aux attaques des hylobies du pin.

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, ,Hylobius abietis L., , . , . , . , . , . () . ó , , . .

     

Nahrungsaufnahme und Natalität bei palaearktischen Simuliiden (Diptera) 1. Blutfütterung vonBoophthora erythrocephala De Geer 1776 undWilhelmia lineata Meigen 1804 am Kaninchen

Zusammenfassung Während mehrer r Monate wurden Weibchen vonBoophthora erythrocephala undWilhelmia lineata am Kaninchenohr gefüttert und die Überlebensrate während der Eireifungsphase,

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Nutrition and Reproduction in Palaearctic Blackflies (Simuliidae: Diptera). I. Bloodfeeding ofBoophthora erythrocephala De Geer andWilhelmia lineata Meigen on RabbitsFemales of the mammalophilic species,Boophthora erythrocephala andWilhelmia lineata, feed on cattle and horses in the field. When fed on the rabbit's ear under laboratory conditions, they differ considerably in bloodsucking activity, in mortality during digestion of blood, natality, and hatching rates of first instar larvae. InB. erythrocephala 641 wild-caught- fed in 74,1% without seasonal variation. When females were kept up to four days before feeding their bloodsucking activity did not decrease. Laboratory-emerged- usually fed in even higher rates (416/533) and 4–6 days old flies fed more frequently than younger or older females. Survival rates during digestion of blood in 4 days were 60% in wild-caught, 40% in laboratory-emerged-, and 74% in cattle-fed-. Only 29% of wild-caught and the cattle-fed- but 50% of the laboratory-emerged flies could be induced to lay eggs on wet substrate. Natality of cattle- (219 eggs/) and laboratory-emerged fed on the rabbit (225 eggs/) were significantly higher than in wild-caught rabbit-fed- (191 eggs/). The number of eggs developing to first instar larvae generally was low (42%). InW. lineata wild-caught- fed less successfully (162/407) and showed considerable seasonal variation. The best results were obtained in September and October. Keeping them in the laboratory for 1–4 days reduced the bloodsucking activity. In laboratory-emerged- the best feeding result (347/724) were obtained with 4–6 day old flies but their survival during maturation of eggs remained low (55%). It was higher with wild-caught (67%) and cattle-fed- (78%). In all cases 60% of them could be induced to oviposit. The rabbit-fed wildcaught or laboratory-emerged flies produced significantly more eggs (183 resp. 197 eggs/) than cattle-fed ones (138 eggs/). Most egg batches contained only 16% fertilized eggs. In laboratory-emerged- ofB. erythrocephala andW. lineata the potential natality was highest in spring, lowest in summer and increased again in autumn. The number of eggs/ was affected by the blood volume. Starting with laboratory-emerged flies fed on the rabbit a production factor of 10.9 is calculated forB. erythrocephala and of 5.4 forW. lineata rearing from the imago to the first instar larva. When the larvae are reated to adults with 44% efficiency a reproduction of 2.4 resp. 1.2 per generation of females results.

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Mit 4 Abbildungen und 4 Tabellen     

The tree/crop interface — or simplifying the biological/environmental study of mixed cropping agroforestry systems

A key to understanding the biological potentials and restraints of agroforestry systems, and the environmental responses of plant components within them, is the tree/crop interface. All agroforestry systems can be studied by separating the growth and yield characteristics of the three basic sets of variables (a) the sole agricultural crop (b) the effects of the tree/crop interface on the crop and tree and (c) the growth of the tree as a whole crop.The interface can be studied wherever it occurs in natural situations, or conventional or systematic experimental layouts, but very simple forms of geometric layouts can be very space efficient.

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Resumer La interfase arbol/cultivo, o como simplificar los estodios biologicoambientales de sistemas mixtos de cultivos agrogorestales.La interface arbol/cultivo es la clave para entender el potencial y las limitaciones biologicas de los sistemas agroforestales, y de la respuesta ambiental de las plantas dentro de los mismos. Todos los sistemas agroforestales pueden ser estudiados separando las caracteristicas de crecimiento y rendimiento de los tres conjuntos basicos de variables: (a) el cultivo agricola solo; (b) los efectos de la interfase arbol/cultivo sobre el cultivo y los arboles; y (c) la plantation forestal sola.La interfase puede ser estudiada cuando ella ocurre en situaciones naturales, o en arreglos experimentales convencionales o sistematicos, pero formas simples de arreglos geometricos pueden ser muy eficientes en el uso del espacio.

     

Effect of cutting position on rooting and shoot growth of two poplar clones

One-year-old shoots from stooling beds of Populus × deltoides Walker and Populus jackii Northwest were collected in late fall to determine the effect of cutting position on rooting and growth of hardwood poplar cuttings. Cuttings with a minimum diameter of 9.0 mm were obtained from basal, middle and distal locations on the poplar shoot. Rooting and shoot growth were assessed in the greenhouse and under field conditions. Walker poplar cuttings collected from basal portions of the shoot and planted in the field had 87.6% rooting and 103.8 cm growth compared to 78.8% and 103.4 cm and 67.6% and 88.8 cm for middle and distal locations respectively. For Northwest rooting and growth under field conditions was 84.4% and 94.7 cm for basal, 78.4% and 90.5 cm for mid and 64.4% and 84.3 cm for distal locations. Rooting in the greenhouse was superior to the field. Walker cuttings had fewer roots and buds per cutting than Northwest, however, growth of Walker in the field was superior.     

Agroforestry pathways for the intensification of shifting cultivation

As a system of land use which entails the deliberate association of trees with herbaceous field crops in time, shifting cultivation is one of the most ancient, widespread and, until recently, ecologically stable forms of agroforestry. However, under pressure of population and competing uses for land and labour, traditional swidden systems have been observed historically to undergo more or less predictable processes of intensification. Since shifting cultivation is an indigenous form of agroforestry, scientific agroforestry is not, strictly speaking, an alternative to shifting cultivation, but rather a systematic approach to the recombination of its basic elements into more intensive, sustainable and politically viable forms of land use, whenever pressures signal the need for change in traditional swidden systems.Different agroforestry options open up from different stages of intensification in swidden systems. A review of evolutionary typologies of shifting cultivation gives rise to a framework for the identification of agroforestry interventions and development pathways appropriate to specific systems. technological proposals are limited to a short list of the most promising agroforestry interventions in main sequence swidden systems. These include integral taungya, economically and biologically enriched fallows, variations on the alley cropping theme, and various tree crop alternatives to annual cropping systems. Examples and quantitative data are cited to substantiate the main hypotheses behind the proposals.     

Die Anfälligkeit verschiedener Sommerweizensorten gegenüber Befall durch die beiden Weizengallmü ckenarten (Dipt., Cecidomyidae)

The susceptibility of some spring wheat varieties to the attack by the two wheat blossom midge species (Dipt., Cecidomyidae) The susceptibility of 20 spring wheat varieties to the attack byContarinia tritici (Kirby) andSitodiplosis mosellana (Géhin) was studied from 1971 to 1976 on small plots. Some varieties proved to be very susceptible, others were partly resistant. Meritus showed a high susceptibility to both wheat blossom midge species, while Arm showed a very low one. The resistance observed could not be explained by incoincidence. Of the varieties still being in trade, Opal should not be grown in areas of damage byS. mosellana. Kleiber and Kolibri are apt for this. Arin can be recommended to be grown in areas, where damage by both wheat blossom midges occurs.     

Agroforestry training and extension: the experience from Haiti

An agroforestry project was funded by the US Agency for International Development and implemented by the Pan American Development Foundation in Haiti from 1981 to 1991. This project is considered by many to be one of the most successful projects of its kind in Haiti, and in the tropics as a whole. Over the ten years of its implementation, the project, referred to in Haitian Creole as Pwoje Pyebwa (Tree Project), evolved from a tree production and planting project to a much broader soil-conservation-based program involving trees. This paper summarizes the training and extension systems that developed during that period. The socioeconomic background studies that were done before the project began, and the flexible, consultative mode of field-team implementation, incorporating elements of the learning process approach, were important to the success of the project. During the implementation of the project, however, concern for farmer input and participation should have been incorporated more systematically into the field operations of the regional teams.     

Paraiso (Melia azedarach var. “Gigante”) woodlots: an agroforestry alternative for the small farmer in Paraguay

This paper describes the salient aspects and analyses the potential of the Paraiso Woodlot System, which is becoming popular as an agroforestry alternative to land use in the degraded acid sandy soils of the humid sub-tropical Guayaybi area of Paraguay. The system consists of a combination of paraiso (Melia azedarach var gigante) with other trees, especially Leucaena leucocephala, and annual crops.The fast growth habit, deep root system, addition of large quantities of organic matter through leaf and litter fall, compatibility with agricultural crops, high value of the sawlogs and production of substantial quantities of poles and firewood make paraiso an excellent species for agroforestry combination. Preliminary results of the trials indicate that the woodlots are successful and with increasing efforts of the extension agencies, they are being accepted as a viable alternative to traditional agricultural systems.Besides discussing the potential of these woodlots based on initial results, the paper identifies the constraints of the system and highlights the priority research areas.     

Zur Wirkung von Sevin auf Regenwürmer

Zusammenfassung In Freiland- und Laborversuchen wurde die Wirkung des Pflanzenschutzmittels Sevin auf Regenwürmer untersucht. Dieser Stoff ist in Pulverform und als Suspension für diese Organismen außerordentlich gefährlich. Schon der Kontakt mit sehr geringen Mengen bewirkt schwere Lähmungserscheinungen und irreversible histopathologische Schäden.

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Summary Experiments in the field as well as in the laboratory showed up the effect of the pesticide Sevin on rainworms. In the form of powder as well as a suspension this material is extremely toxic for them. Contact with smallest quantities even causes severe paralysis and irreversible histopathologic damages.

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Résumé Aussi bien dans la nature que au laboratoire nous avons étudié l'activité de l'insecticide Sevin sur les vers de terre. Ce produit est en poudre ou en suspension extrémement dangereux pour ces organismes. Le seul contact avec des quantités minimes de ce produit provoquent des phénomènes de paralysie et des troubles histopathologiques irreversibles.

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SEVIN . . .

     

Preparation of liquid polyesterpolyols from glucose and its methyl derivative

Preparation of liquid polyols from d-(+)-glucose (Glc) and its derivative, methyl--d-glucoside (m-Glc), has been studied. Direct reaction of -caprolactone (CL) with Glc (CL:Glc = 2:1–5:1 in weight ratio) at 150°C using tin(II) 2-ethyl hexanoate (SnEht₂) (series A), in which melted Glc was suspended in CL, resulted in a dark-brown coloration of the reactants. The reaction was accompanied by formation of high molecular weight resins, a pH drop, production of water, and a considerable decrease in the hydroxyl value from the theoretically expected one. In the case of Glc/ethylene glycol (EG)/CL reaction system with SnEht₂ catalyst at 150°C (series B), in which the weight ratio of Glc to EG was fixed at 1:1, Glc dissolved in the EG/CL mixture, but the brown coloration of the reactant mixture still occurred. In this case, the formation of water was enhanced, but the other effects found in series A were suppressed to a considerable extent. In the m-Glc/CL/SnEht₂ reaction system (series C), in which m-Glc reacted with two to five times weight amounts of CL under the same conditions adopted in series A, development of the color, the production of high molecular weight materials and water, and the changes in pH and hydroxyl value were not observed. These results are discussed based on the chemical structural differences: Glc exists mostly in the hemiacetal form, but tautomerizes to the aldehyde, whereas m-Glc is an acetal and is protected from reversion to the aldehyde.     

Generationszahl der RübenfliegePegomyia hyoscyami betae Curt.

Summary During the years 1959–1961 the number of generations was followed in Spinach Leaf Miner (Pegomyia hyoscyami betae Curt.) in central Bohemia at 310 m above sea level and in the year 1961 in southern Bohemia at 450 m. The larvae and the eggs were studied on the leaves at regular 10–14 days' intervals by controlling each plant and images by means of a sweeping method. There have been acertained two generations in the year 1959 and three generations in the year 1961 in central Bohemia and two generations in the year 1961 in southern Bohemia. The occurence of every generation of larvae on the suggar-beet was separate and the previous and the consecutive generation did not overlop.The origin of the erroneous date on 6–7 generations of this species (Rambousek, Neuwirth, 1931) has been also cleared up in this article. This statement has been taken over by Sorauer (1953) from the Review of Applied Entomology (1931) and has been lately mentioned by many authors. F. Neuwirth gave a personal information, that the statement on 6–7 generations occurence of Spinach Leaf Miner has been found on the basis of theoretical calculation (from the lenght of one generation in spring and not on the basis of the facts found in natural conditions).

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Résumé En 1959–1961 le nombre des générations de la mouche de la betterave a été observé dans la Bohème Centrale á l'altitude de 310 m audessus de la mer et en 1961 dans le Sud de la Bohème á l'altitude de 450 m. Les larves et les oeufs ont été observé sur les feuilles dans les intervalles de 10–14 jours regulierement effectués sur chaque plante et imagines en particulier par le filet fauchior. En 1959 deux générations et en 1960 et 1961 trios géné rations dans la Bohéme Centrale, ainsi que en 1961 deux générations dans le Sud de la Boheme ont été constates. La prence de chaque génération des larves sur la betterave aété separée et les générations consecutives ne malaient pas presque jamais avec les précedents.Dans cet travail l'auteur a clarifié comment une donnée fautive sur 6–7 générations de cette espéce est survenu (Rambousek et Neuwirth, 1931). Cette donnée orginante de Review of Applied Entomology [1931] a été reprise par Sorauer (1953) et elle a été ensuite récemment mentionée par d'autres auteurs. Selon une déclaration personelle de Mr. F. Neuwirth les donées des 6–7 générations de la mouche de la betterave en Tschécoslovaquie ent été acquis par une évaluation théoretique (se basant sur la durée de la génération du printemps et non sur les resultats des observations réelles dans les conditions naturelles.

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1959–61 . (310 . ) 1961 . (450 . ). 10–14 , . 1959 . 2 , 1960 . — 3, 1961 . — 2 . , . , 6–7 (Rambousek, Neuwirth 1931). . . 6–7 , , .

     

The reaction of guaiacol with iron III and chromium VI compounds as a model for wood surface modification

Summary The reaction of ferric chloride with the lignin model guaiacol affords primarily a complex mixture of coupled guaiacol oligomers. Major components were the symmetrical carbon-carbon coupled dimer 3,3-dimethoxy-[1,1-biphenyl]-4,4diol and the trimer 3,3,5-trimethoxy-[1,1:3,1-terphenyl]-4,4,4-triol which were isolated by preparative HPLC and characterized by ¹HNMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. An unstable component believed to be a 4,4-diphenoquinone derived from the trimer was also prominent. The reaction of chromium trioxide with guaiacol yields the same dimer, trimer and diphenoquinone as well as 2-methoxy-p-benzoquinone. The major product with chromium trioxide, however, is an inert, highly insoluble polymer which was shown by degradation to contain guaiacol oligomers bound or crosslinked by hydroxylated chromium species. Magnetic susceptibility measurements clearly indicated that the valency of chromium in the polymer was + 3. It is postulated that similar complexes formed from phenolic lignin units are responsible for the weather resistance of chromium trioxide treated wood surfaces. In a broader context this study is relevant to the fixation of hexavalent chromium from a range of widely used wood preservative formulations.The authors wish to thank the following: Tom Syers (CSIRO Division of Forest Products) for technical assistance, Mary Reilly (CSIRO Division of Forest Products) for NMR spectral determinations and Ivan Vit (CSIRO Division of Chemicals and Polymers) for mass spectral determinations