Changes in Abundance of Eight Sagebrush-Steppe Bunchgrass Species 13 Yr After Coplanting

Stable bunchgrass populations are essential to resilience and restoration of sagebrush steppe rangelands, yet few studies have assessed long-term variation in plant abundance from a known starting point. We capitalized on a previous paddock study by reestablishing in 2011 nine replicate blocks consisting of 29 × 29 grid of cells, each planted in 1998 with a single individual of one of eight sagebrush steppe bunchgrasses, including the widely planted exotic, crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum). Plant species and numbers were determined in 2011 for each cell, which were classified as holds or cedes, with ceded cells used to determine species-specific gains. We hypothesized the competitive crested wheatgrass would proportionally occur more in gained cells compared with native grasses. While crested wheatgrass did proportionally hold and gain the greatest number of cells, the relative number of plants within holds and gains was constant across all species, with most plants (80 ? 87%) occurring outside cells originally planted with them. Crested wheatgrass had greater proportions of holds and gains where it was the only species within the cell and showed even presence across all cells planted with other grass species in 1998. Native grasses were underrepresented in 1998 crested wheatgrass cells and sometimes overrepresented in other native species cells. The ratio of total crested wheatgrass to native bunchgrass plants followed a sigmoidal step increase with increasing crested wheatgrass density. These results show population changes in sagebrush steppe bunchgrasses are determined by seed production and emergent seedling survival, both of which are stronger in the exotic bunchgrass. This study also showed that native grasses can maintain presence via seed in areas depending on crested wheatgrass density. This information could help shape management strategies capitalizing on the utility of crested wheatgrass and sustaining desirable levels of native grass productivity and diversity.     

Longer-Term Evaluation of Revegetation of Medusahead-Invaded Sagebrush Steppe

Medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae [L.] Nevski) and other exotic annual grasses have invaded millions of hectares of sagebrush (Artemisia L.) steppe. Revegetation of medusahead-invaded sagebrush steppe with perennial vegetation is critically needed to restore productivity and decrease the risk of frequent wildfires. However, it is unclear if revegetation efforts provide long-term benefits (fewer exotic annuals and more perennials). The limited literature available on the topic questions whether revegetation efforts reduce medusahead abundance beyond 2 or 3 yr. We evaluated revegetation of medusahead-invaded rangelands for 5 yr after seeding introduced perennial bunchgrasses at five locations. We compared areas that were fall-prescribed burned immediately followed by an imazapic herbicide treatment and then seeded with bunchgrasses 1 yr later (imazapic-seed) with untreated controls (control). The imazapic-seed treatment decreased exotic annual grass cover and density. At the end of the study, exotic annual grass cover and density were 2-fold greater in the control compared with the imazapic-seed treatment. The imazapic-seed treatment had greater large perennial bunchgrass cover and density and less annual forb (predominately exotic annuals) cover and density than the untreated control for the duration of the study. At the end of the study, large perennial bunchgrass density average 10 plant ? m^? 2 in the imazapic-seed treatment, which is comparable with intact sagebrush steppe communities. Plant available soil nitrogen was also greater in the imazapic-seed treatment compared with the untreated control for the duration of the study. The results of this study suggest that revegetation of medusahead-invaded sagebrush steppe can provide lasting benefits, including limiting exotic annual grasses.     

Eighty Years of Grazing by Cattle Modifies Sagebrush and Bunchgrass Structure

Grazing by cattle is ubiquitous across the sagebrush steppe; however, little is known about its effects on sagebrush and native bunchgrass structure. Understanding the effects of long-term grazing on sagebrush and bunchgrass structure is important because sagebrush is a keystone species and bunchgrasses are the dominant herbaceous functional group in these communities. To investigate the effects of long-term grazing on sagebrush and bunchgrass structure, we compared nine grazing exclosures with nine adjacent rangelands that were grazed by cattle in southeast Oregon. Grazing was moderate utilization (30 ? 45%) with altering season of use and infrequent rest. Long-term grazing by cattle altered some structural aspects of bunchgrasses and sagebrush. Ungrazed bunchgrasses had larger dead centers in their crowns, as well as greater dead fuel depths below and above the crown level compared with grazed bunchgrasses. This accumulation of dry fuel near the meristematic tissue may increase the probability of fire-induced mortality during a wildfire. Bunchgrasses in the ungrazed treatment had more reproductive stems than those in the long-term grazed treatment. This suggests that seed production of bunchgrasses may be greater in ungrazed areas. Sagebrush height and longest canopy diameter were 15% and 20% greater in the ungrazed compared with the grazed treatment, respectively. However, the bottom of the sagebrush canopy was closer to the ground in the grazed compared with the ungrazed treatment, which may provide better hiding cover for ground-nesting avian species. Sagebrush basal stem diameter, number of stems, amount of dead material in the canopy, canopy gap size, and number of canopy gaps did not differ between ungrazed and grazed treatments. Moderate grazing does not appear to alter the competitive relationship between a generally unpalatable shrub and palatable bunchgrasses. Long-term, moderate grazing appears to have minimal effects to the structure of bunchgrasses and sagebrush, other than reducing the risk of bunchgrass mortality during a fire event.     

Herbicide Protection Pods (HPPs) Facilitate Sagebrush and Bunchgrass Establishment under Imazapic Control of Exotic Annual Grasses

Revegetation of exotic annual grass−invaded rangelands is a primary objective of land managers following wildfires. Controlling invasive annual grasses is essential to increasing revegetation success; however, preemergent herbicides used to control annual grasses prohibit immediate seeding due to nontarget herbicide damage. Thus, seeding is often delayed 1 yr following herbicide application. This delay frequently allows for reinvasion of annual grasses, decreasing the success of revegetation efforts. Incorporating seeds into herbicide protection pods (HPPs) containing activated carbon (AC) permits concurrent high preemergent herbicide application and seeding because AC adsorbs and renders herbicides inactive. While HPPs have, largely in greenhouse studies, facilitated perennial bunchgrass emergence and early growth, their effectiveness in improving establishment of multiple species and functional groups in the field has not been assessed. Five bunchgrass species and two shrub species were seeded at two field sites with high imazapic application rates as bare seed and seed incorporated into HPPs. HPPs significantly improved establishment of sagebrush (Artemesia tridentata Nutt. Spp. wyomingensis Beetle & Young) and crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum [L.] Gaertn.) over the 2-yr study. Three native perennial grass species were protected from herbicide damage by HPPs but had low establishment in both treatments. The two remaining shrub and grass species did not establish sufficiently to determine treatment effects. While establishment of native perennial bunchgrasses was low, this study demonstrates that HPPs can be used to protect seeded bunchgrasses and sagebrush from imazapic, prolonging establishment time in the absence of competition with annual grasses.     

Revegetation of Medusahead-Invaded Sagebrush Steppe

Medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae [L.] Nevski) is an exotic annual grass invading western rangelands. Invasion by medusahead is problematic because it decreases livestock forage production, degrades wildlife habitat, reduces biodiversity, and increases fire frequency. Revegetation of medusahead-invaded sagebrush steppe is needed to increase ecosystem and economic productivity. Most efforts to revegetate medusahead-infested plant communities are unsuccessful because perennial bunchgrasses rarely establish after medusahead control. The effects of prescribed burning (spring or fall), fall imazapic application, and their combinations were evaluated for medusahead control and the establishment of seeded large perennial bunchgrasses. One growing season after treatments were applied, desert wheatgrass (Agropyron desertorum [Fisch. ex Link] Schult.) and squirreltail (Elymus elymoides [Raf.] Swezey) were drill seeded into treatment plots, except for the control treatment. Vegetation characteristics were measured for 2 yr postseeding (second and third year post-treatment). Medusahead was best controlled when prescribed burned and then treated with imazapic (P < 0.05). These treatments also had greater large perennial bunchgrass cover and density compared to other treatments (P < 0.05). The prescribed burned followed by imazapic application had greater than 10- and 8-fold more perennial bunchgrass cover and density than the control treatment, respectively. Prescribed burning, regardless of season, was not effective at controlling medusahead or promoting establishment of perennial bunchgrasses. The results of this study question the long-term effectiveness of using imazapic in revegetation efforts of medusahead-infested sagebrush steppe without first prescribed burning the infestation. Effective control of medusahead appears to be needed for establishment of seeded perennial bunchgrasses. The results of this study demonstrate that seeding desert wheatgrass and squirreltail can successfully revegetate rangeland infested with medusahead when medusahead has been controlled with prescribed fire followed by fall application of imazapic.     

Prescribed Summer Fire and Seeding Applied to Restore Juniper-Encroached and Exotic Annual Grass-Invaded Sagebrush Steppe

Western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis Hook.) encroachment and exotic annual grass (medusahead [Taeniatherum caput-medusae L. Nevski] and cheatgrass [Bromus tectorum L.]) invasion of sagebrush (Artemisia L.) communities decrease ecosystem services and degrade ecosystem function. Traditionally, these compositional changes were largely confined to separate areas, but more sagebrush communities are now simultaneously being altered by juniper and exotic annual grasses. Few efforts have evaluated attempts to restore these sagebrush communities. The Crooked River National Grassland initiated a project to restore juniper-encroached and annual grass-invaded sagebrush steppe using summer (mid-July) applied prescribed fires and postfire seeding. Treatments were unburned, burned, burned and seeded with a native seed mix, and burned and seeded with an introduced seed mix. Prescribed burning removed all juniper and initially reduced medusahead cover but did not influence cheatgrass cover. Neither the native nor introduced seed mix were successful at increasing large bunchgrass cover, and 6 yr post fire, medusahead cover was greater in burned treatments compared with the unburned treatment. Large bunchgrass cover and biological soil crusts were less in treatments that included burning. Exotic forbs and bulbous bluegrass (Poa bulbosa L.), an exotic grass, were greater in burned treatments compared with the unburned treatment. Sagebrush communities that are both juniper encroached and exotic annual grass invaded will need specific management of both juniper and annual grasses. We suggest that additional treatments, such as pre-emergent herbicide control of annuals and possibly multiple seeding events, are necessary to restore these communities. We recommend an adaptive management approach in which additional treatments are applied on the basis of monitoring data.     

Weed-Suppressive Bacteria Have No Effect on Exotic or Native Plants in Sagebrush-Steppe

Approaches and techniques for control of exotic annual grasses are a high priority in rangelands including sagebrush steppe. Strains of the soil bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens have been proposed to be selectively pathogenic to multiple species of exotic annual grasses (“Pf,” weed-suppressive bacteria, “WSB”). However, defensible tests of the target and nontarget effects of these WSB strains in the field are needed. We evaluated the effects of D7 and MB906 strains of Pf WSB in sagebrush steppe invaded by cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum L), medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae L. Nevski), and other exotic annual grasses. We evaluated the WSB strains with and without herbicides (imazapic, rimsulfuron) or discing to mix surface-spray of the WSB into deeper soils, and we replicated these tests in three ecoregions that differed in soils and climate. Over 3 yr after treatment, neither WSB strain affected cover of exotic annual grasses, perennial bunchgrasses, or the total community, either with WSB alone or in combination with herbicides or discing. WSB has received considerable attention and is being applied across large rangeland areas, but the WSB strains and methods applied here were ineffective. We recommend any future use of WSB be applied in an experimental fashion, with experimental design and measurement of responses, until its effects can be proven.     

Differential Species Responses to Aspects of Resistance to Invasion in Two Columbia Plateau − Protected Areas

Protected-area sagebrush steppe ecosystems are few in number and increasingly important to the North American conservation network as sagebrush steppe faces growing threats from land use, climate change, and invasive species. We analyzed the distribution and abundance of native perennial and invasive annual plants to better understand patterns of plant invasion within two protected areas: John Day Fossil Beds National Monument (JODA), located in central Oregon, and Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve (CRMO), located in southeast Idaho. We used multivariate analysis to examine vegetation monitoring datasets and illuminate geographic variation in plant cover along gradients of well-known aspects of resistance to plant invasion (elevation, exposure [slope and aspect], precipitation and proximity to disturbance). Topographically mediated resistance to invasion appeared to manifest in the park with greater topographic variability (JODA), while increased elevation was more strongly associated with resistant sites in the park, which spanned a greater elevational gradient (CRMO). Factors that may mitigate moisture-mediated resistance also differed between sites. Slope and aspect were factors of apparent resistance for bunchgrass communities in JODA, while high crop year precipitation appeared to benefit medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae [L.] Nevski) and the weedy native subshrub broom snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae [Pursh] Britton & Rusby) over bunchgrasses and Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata Nutt. ssp. wyomingensis Beetle & Young). Increased elevation and distance to disturbed areas were the most important factors of resistance in forb-rich communities at CRMO, with the invasive annuals cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum L.), tumblemustard (Sisymbrium altissimum L.), and Descurainia spp. Webb & Bethel. invading in low elevations and in close proximity to roads or agricultural fields. Such complexity underscores the idiosyncratic nature of the manifestation of resistance and the need for place-based empirical studies to provide information for guiding protected-area management.     

Fungal Facilitation in Rangelands: Do Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Mediate Resilience and Resistance in Sagebrush Steppe?

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) may exert profound influences on ecosystem resilience and invasion resistance in rangelands. Maintenance of plant community structure through ecological feedback mechanisms such as facilitation of nutrient cycling and uptake by host plants, physical and chemical contributions to soil structural stability, and mediation of plant competition suggest AMF may be important facilitators in stressful arid environments. Plant-AMF interactions could influence succession by increasing native plant community resilience to drought, grazing, and fire and resistance to exotic plant invasion. However, invasive exotic plants may benefit from associations with, as well as alter, native AMF communities. Furthermore, questions remain on the role of AMF in stressful environments, specifically the mycorrhizal dependency of sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) steppe plant species. Here, we review scientific literature relevant to AMF in rangelands, with specific focus on impacts of land management, disturbance, and invasion on AMF communities in sagebrush steppe. We highlight the nature of AMF ecology as it relates to rangelands and discuss the methods used to measure mycorrhizal responsiveness. Our review found compelling evidence that AMF mediation of resilience to disturbance and resistance to invasion varies with plant and fungal community composition, including plant mycorrhizal host status, plant functional guild, and physiological adaptations to disturbance in both plants and fungi. We conclude by outlining a framework to advance knowledge of AMF in rangeland invasion ecology. Understanding the role of AMF in semiarid sagebrush steppe ecosystems will likely require multiple study approaches due to the highly variable nature of plant-AMF interactions, the complex mechanisms of resilience conference, and the unknown thresholds for responses to environmental stressors. This may require shifting away from the plant biomass paradigm of assessing mycorrhizal benefits in order to obtain a more holistic view of plant dependency on AMF, or lack thereof, in sagebrush steppe and other semiarid ecosystems.     

Cattle Grazing and Vegetation Succession on Burned Sagebrush Steppe

There is limited information about the effects of cattle grazing to longer-term plant community composition and herbage production following fire in sagebrush steppe. This study evaluated vegetation response to cattle grazing over 7 yr (2007–2013) on burned Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis [Beetle & Young] Welsh) steppe in eastern Oregon. Treatments, replicated four times and applied in a randomized complete block design, included no grazing on burned (nonuse) and unburned (control) sagebrush steppe; and cattle grazing at low (low), moderate (moderate), and high (high) stocking on burned sagebrush steppe. Vegetation dynamics were evaluated by quantifying herbaceous (canopy and basal cover, density, production, reproductive shoot weight) and shrub (canopy cover, density) response variables. Aside from basal cover, herbaceous canopy cover, production, and reproduction were not different among low, moderate, and nonuse treatments. Perennial bunchgrass basal cover was about 25% lower in the low and moderate treatments than the nonuse. Production, reproductive stem weight, and perennial grass basal cover were greater in the low, moderate, and nonuse treatments than the control. The high treatment had lower perennial bunchgrass cover (canopy and basal) and production than other grazed and nonuse treatments. Bunchgrass density remained unchanged in the high treatment, not differing from other treatments, and reproductive effort was comparable to the other treatments, indicating these areas are potentially recoverable by reducing stocking. Cover and production of Bromus tectorum L. (cheatgrass) did not differ among the grazed and nonuse treatments, though all were greater than the control. Cover and density of A.t. spp. wyomingensis did not differ among the burned grazed and nonuse treatments and were less than the control. We concluded that light to moderate stocking rates are compatible to sustainable grazing of burned sagebrush steppe rangelands.     

Impact of Native Grasses and Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) on Great Basin Forb Seedling Growth

Re-establishing native communities that resist exotic weed invasion and provide diverse habitat for wildlife are high priorities for restoration in sagebrush ecosystems. Native forbs are an important component of healthy rangelands in this system, but they are rarely included in seedings. Understanding competitive interactions between forb and grass seedlings is required to devise seeding strategies that can enhance establishment of diverse native species assemblages in degraded sagebrush communities. We conducted a greenhouse experiment to examine seedling biomass and relative growth rate of common native forb species when grown alone or in the presence of a native bunchgrass or an exotic annual grass. Forb species included bigseed biscuitroot (Lomatium macrocarpum [Nutt. ex Torr. & A. Gray] J.M. Coult. & Rose), sulphur-flower buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum Torr.), hoary aster (Machaeranthera canescens [Pursh] Gray), royal penstemon (Penstemon speciosus Douglas ex Lindl.), and Munro's globemallow (Sphaeralcea munroana [Douglas ex Lindl.] Spach ex Gray); and neighboring grass species included bottlebrush squirreltail (Elymus elymoides [Raf.] Swezey), Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda J. Presl); and cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum L.). Forbs and grasses were harvested after 6, 9, or 12 wk of growth for biomass determination and calculation of relative growth rates (RGR) of forbs. Neither bunchgrass reduced biomass of any forb. RGR was reduced for royal penstemon when grown with either native grass and for Munro's globemallow when grown with bottlebrush squirreltail. Although only assessed qualitatively, forbs with vertically oriented root morphologies exhibited no reduction in RGR when grown with native grasses, compared to forbs with dense lateral branching, similar to the root morphology of native grasses. Biomass of forbs was reduced by 50% to 91% and RGR by 37% to 80% when grown with cheatgrass. Understanding native forb interactions with native grasses and cheatgrass will aid land managers in selecting effective seed mixes and making better use of costly seed.     

Postfire Succession in Big Sagebrush Steppe With Livestock Grazing

Prescribed fire in rangeland ecosystems is applied for a variety of management objectives, including enhancing productivity of forage species for domestic livestock. In the big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata Nutt.) steppe of the western United States, fire has been a natural and prescribed disturbance, temporarily shifting vegetation from shrub–grass codominance to grass dominance. There is limited information on the impacts of grazing to community dynamics following fire in big sagebrush steppe. This study evaluated cattle grazing impacts over four growing seasons after prescribed fire on Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata subsp. Wyomingensis [Beetle & Young] Welsh) steppe in eastern Oregon. Treatments included no grazing on burned and unburned sagebrush steppe, two summer-grazing applications after fire, and two spring-grazing applications after fire. Treatment plots were burned in fall 2002. Grazing trials were applied from 2003 to 2005. Vegetation dynamics in the treatments were evaluated by quantifying herbaceous canopy cover, density, annual yield, and perennial grass seed yield. Seed production was greater in the ungrazed burn treatments than in all burn–grazed treatments; however, these differences did not affect community recovery after fire. Other herbaceous response variables (cover, density, composition, and annual yield), bare ground, and soil surface litter did not differ among grazed and ungrazed burn treatments. All burn treatments (grazed and ungrazed) had greater herbaceous cover, herbaceous standing crop, herbaceous annual yield, and grass seed production than the unburned treatment by the second or third year after fire. The results demonstrated that properly applied livestock grazing after low-severity, prescribed fire will not hinder the recovery of herbaceous plant communities in Wyoming big sagebrush steppe.     

Grass Seedling Demography and Sagebrush Steppe Restoration

Seeding is a key management tool for arid rangeland. In these systems, however, seeded species often fail to establish. A recent study in Wyoming big sagebrush steppe suggested that over 90% of seeded native grass individuals die before seedlings emerged. This current study examines the timing and rate of seed germination, seedling emergence, and seedling death related to this demographic bottleneck. We seeded monocultures of two native perennial bunchgrasses, Pseudoroegenaria spicata (Pursh) Á. Löve and Elymus elymoides (Raf.) Swezey, and one introduced bunchgrass, Agropyron desertorum (Fisch. ex Link) Schult., in 2007, 2008, and 2009 and tracked sown seed and seedling fate. Across the study years and species we found that germination was rapid and high, with species obtaining 50% germination by December, less than 2 mo after planting. Emergence of germinated seed did not occur until late February for A. desertorum and March for the two native grasses. In 2007 the majority of emergence and death was constrained to several weeks, whereas in 2008 and 2009 emergence and death was distributed across several months. The timing of seedling emergence did not influence survival probability or midday plant water potential (probability of exceedance &spilt; 0.05). Survival probabilities once seedlings emerged were greater for native species (0.71) than A. desertorum (0.51) in 2 of the 3 study yr (probability of exceedance &spigt; 0.98). The early germination of grasses following fall seeding, and the long 2- to 3-mo period that germinated grass seed remain in the soil before emerging, support the hypothesis that seedling recruitment might be limited largely by ecological processes and conditions during winter or early spring (such as soil freeze–thaw events, seed pathogens, or physical crusts). Delaying seeding to early winter or spring and other management tools that mitigate these factors driving this bottleneck might greatly improve restoration outcomes in these systems.     

Invasion is Contingent on Species Assemblage and Invasive Species Identity in Experimental Rehabilitation Plots

Ecological studies often suggest that diverse communities are most resistant to invasion by exotic plants, but relatively few local species may be available to a rehabilitation practitioner. We examine the ability of monocultures and diverse assemblages to resist invasion by an exotic annual grass (cheatgrass) and an exotic biennial forb (dyer's woad) in experimental rehabilitation plots. We constructed seven assemblages that included three monocultures of grass, forb, or shrub; three four-species mixtures of grasses, forbs, or shrubs; and a three-species mixture of one species from each growth form in an experimental field setting to test resistance to invasion. Assemblages were seeded with cheatgrass and dyer's woad for two consecutive years and quantified as biomass and density of individuals from each exotic species. Soil NO₃^- and leaf-area index were examined as predictors of invasive plant abundance. Cheatgrass invasion was greatest in forb and shrub assemblages, and least in mixed grass or grass monoculture; dyer's woad invasion was greatest into mixed grass or grass monoculture, but least into monoculture or mixed-species assemblages composed of forbs or shrubs. The community composed of grasses, forbs, and shrubs suppressed invasion by both species. Consequently, assemblages were most resistant to invasion by species of the same growth form. Moreover, these monocultures and mixtures were generally similar in conferring resistance to invasion, but a monoculture of big sagebrush was more resistant than a mixture of shrubs. Soil NO₃^- was correlated with invasion by cheatgrass, whereas LAI was correlated with invasion by dyer's woad, suggesting these species were more limited by belowground and aboveground resources, respectively. Overall, increasing diversity with limited species did not necessarily enhance resistance to invasion.     

Comparison of Medusahead-Invaded and Noninvaded Wyoming Big Sagebrush Steppe in Southeastern Oregon

Medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae [L.] Nevski) is an exotic, annual grass invading sagebrush steppe rangelands in the western United States. Medusahead invasion has been demonstrated to reduce livestock forage, but otherwise information comparing vegetation characteristics of medusahead-invaded to noninvaded sagebrush steppe communities is limited. This lack of knowledge makes it difficult to determine the cost–benefit ratio of controlling and preventing medusahead invasion. To estimate the impact of medusahead invasion, vegetation characteristics were compared between invaded and noninvaded Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata subsp. wyomingensis [Beetle & A. Young] S. L. Welsh) steppe communities that had similar soils, topography, climate, and management. Noninvaded plant communities had greater cover and density of all native herbaceous functional groups compared to medusahead-invaded communities (P < 0.01). Large perennial grass cover was 15-fold greater in the noninvaded compared to invaded plant communities. Sagebrush cover and density were greater in the noninvaded compared to the medusahead-invaded communities (P < 0.01). Biomass production of all native herbaceous functional groups was higher in noninvaded compared to invaded plant communities (P < 0.02). Perennial and annual forb biomass production was 1.9- and 45-fold more, respectively, in the noninvaded than invaded communities. Species richness and diversity were greater in the noninvaded than invaded plant communities (P < 0.01). The results of this study suggest that medusahead invasion substantially alters vegetation characteristics of sagebrush steppe plant communities, and thereby diminishes wildlife habitat, forage production, and ecosystem functions. Because of the broad negative influence of medusahead invasion, greater efforts should be directed at preventing its continued expansion.     

Vegetation Response to Mowing Dense Mountain Big Sagebrush Stands

A decrease in fire frequency and past grazing practices has led to dense mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata Nutt. subsp. vaseyana [Rydb.] Beetle) stands with reduced herbaceous understories. To reverse this trend, sagebrush-reducing treatments often are applied with the goal of increasing herbaceous vegetation. Mechanical mowing is a sagebrush-reducing treatment that commonly is applied; however, information detailing vegetation responses to mowing treatments generally are lacking. Specifically, information is needed to determine whether projected increases in perennial grasses and forbs are realized and how exotic annual grasses respond to mowing treatments. To answer these questions, we evaluated vegetation responses to mowing treatments in mountain big sagebrush plant communities at eight sites. Mowing was implemented in the fall of 2007 and vegetation characteristics were measured for 3 yr post-treatment. In the first growing season post-treatment, there were few vegetation differences between the mowed treatment and untreated control (P > 0.05), other than sagebrush cover being reduced from 28% to 3% with mowing (P < 0.001). By the second growing season post-treatment, perennial grass, annual forb, and total herbaceous vegetation were generally greater in the mowed than control treatment (P < 0.05). Total herbaceous vegetation production was increased 1.7-fold and 1.5-fold with mowing in the second and third growing seasons, respectively (P < 0.001). However, not all plant functional groups increased with mowing. Perennial forbs and exotic annual grasses did not respond to the mowing treatment (P > 0.05). These results suggest that the abundance of sagebrush might not be the factor limiting some herbaceous plant functional groups, or they respond slowly to sagebrush-removing disturbances. However, this study suggests that mowing can be used to increase herbaceous vegetation and decrease sagebrush in some mountain big sagebrush plant communities without promoting exotic annual grass invasion.     

新疆昌吉州草地生产力年际动态分析

通过对新疆昌吉州草地生产力2006~2010年5年监测结果显示:各草地类型植被不同程度退化。植物种类减少,草群结构单一,优势种出现频率很低,一年生和短命植物比例增加,中山带毒害草(醉马草)大量出现;草层高度不同程度下降。除山地草甸外,高寒草甸、草甸草原、典型草原和荒漠草层高度下降明显,下降幅度都超过了10%;植被覆盖度降低。除荒漠外高寒草甸、山地草甸、草甸草原、荒漠草原和低地草甸下降明显,下降幅度都超过了10%;草地生产力不同程度下降,在2009~2010年草地生产力有所上升。     

Fire Risk in Revegetated Bunchgrass Communities Infested with Bromus tectorum

In rangeland ecosystems, invasive annual grass replacement of native perennials is associated with higher fire risk. Large bunchgrasses are often seeded to reduce cover of annuals such as Bromus tectorum L. (cheatgrass), but there is limited information about how revegetation reduces fire risk over the long term. We assessed how revegetated community composition influences fire risk at three sites in Columbia National Wildlife Refuge in Grant County, Washington that were revegetated with large bunchgrasses 8 ? 18 years before the study. At each site, five replicates of 10 plots (10 × 10 m) were established. Fire risk was determined as the probability that a plot would completely burn following ignition at a randomly located point in each plot (i.e., if 8 of 10 plots burned, then fire risk was 80%). Preignition, cover of bunchgrasses, cheatgrass, forbs, and surface characteristics were determined for each plot. Fire risk was < 100%. However, fire risk was still relatively high around 73% and did not differ significantly among sites despite differences in cheatgrass and bunchgrass cover, which may have been attributable to other characteristics, such as high total fuels cover (> 80% at all sites) and unvegetated gap cover (soil and soil cryptogams, < 17%). This information can provide guidance for future studies with larger ranges of cover characteristics to develop robust fire risk models, which ultimately will be used to aid rangeland managers who need to specify reduction of fire risk after reestablishing large bunchgrasses in rangelands infested with cheatgrass.     

Effects of Long-Term Livestock Grazing on Fuel Characteristics in Rangelands: An Example From the Sagebrush Steppe

Livestock grazing potentially has substantial influence on fuel characteristics in rangelands around the globe. However, information quantifying the impacts of grazing on rangeland fuel characteristics is limited, and the effects of grazing on fuels are important because fuel characteristics are one of the primary factors determining risk, severity, continuity, and size of wildfires. We investigated the effects of long-term (70+ yr) livestock grazing exclusion (nongrazed) and moderate levels of livestock grazing (grazed) on fuel accumulations, continuity, gaps, and heights in shrub-grassland rangelands. Livestock used the grazed treatment through 2008 and sampling occurred in mid- to late summer in 2009. Nongrazed rangelands had over twofold more herbaceous standing crop than grazed rangelands (P < 0.01). Fuel accumulations on perennial bunchgrasses were approximately threefold greater in nongrazed than grazed treatments. Continuity of fuels in nongrazed compared to grazed treatments was also greater (P < 0.05). The heights of perennial grass current year’s and previous years’ growth were 1.3-fold and 2.2-fold taller in nongrazed compared to grazed treatments (P < 0.01). The results of this study suggest that moderate livestock grazing decreases the risk of wildfires in sagebrush steppe plant communities and potentially other semi-arid and arid rangelands. These results also suggest wildfires in moderately grazed sagebrush rangelands have decreased severity, continuity, and size of the burn compared to long-term nongrazed sagebrush rangelands. Because of the impacts fuels have on fire characteristics, moderate levels of grazing probably increase the efficiency of fire suppression activities. Because of the large difference between fuel characteristics in grazed and nongrazed sagebrush rangelands, we suggest that additional management impacts on fuels and subsequently fires need to be investigated in nonforested rangelands to protect native plant communities and prioritize management needs.