Potential Spread of Cheatgrass and Other Invasive Species by Feral Horses in Western Colorado

The invasive grass cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum L.) presents major challenges for land management and habitat conservation in the western United States. Feral horses (Equus ferus caballus) have become overabundant in some areas of the West and can impact fragile semiarid ecosystems. Amid ongoing efforts to control cheatgrass in the Great Basin, we conducted a study to determine if feral horses contribute to the spread of cheatgrass through distribution via their feces. We collected feral horse fecal samples from Little Book Cliffs Herd Management Area in western Colorado in 2014. Fecal samples were dried, and 20 from each of 3 collection sessions were cultivated to examine germination success. Six species germinated from 18 samples (30%; mostly one plant per sample where germination occurred), including cheatgrass from 8% of samples. In a separate study we examined the diet of this same horse population using fecal plant DNA barcoding. Plant species that germinated were rare in the diet and germinated from fewer samples than expected relative to their detection in the diet. Our results suggest that feral horses could be contributing to cheatgrass propagation. Native ungulates and domestic cattle also have this potential. Although management of all large ungulates is necessary to mitigate cheatgrass spread, control of feral horse numbers is particularly necessary.     

Assessment of Animal-Based Methods Used for Estimating and Monitoring Rangeland Herbivore Diet Composition

Researchers and managers need effective tools for monitoring the use of forages by large herbivores. Since 2000, the number of herbivore diet studies has nearly doubled. In this review, we determine trends in the field; assess the utility of key techniques against five criteria (cost, accuracy and precision, resolution, utility for long-term monitoring programs, and appropriateness for browsers and grazers); and make recommendations to give managers appropriate tools. Three techniques stand out: microhistology, near infrared reflectance spectroscopy, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) barcoding. Microhistology has a long history of use in rangelands and is often considered the gold standard for understanding diet composition, albeit at a high cost of labor. Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy can resolve the presence of target groups or species more quickly than microhistology, especially for grazers. DNA barcoding provides the greatest resolution of dietary items with less quantitative certainty than microhistology. The costs associated with DNA barcoding come primarily from technology and sequencing, while in microhistology they are associated with labor. Therefore, an improved, streamlined microhistology method could provide rangeland managers a rapid and cost-effective method for diet monitoring. Ultimately, the complex challenges facing rangeland managers today may require the use of more than one method to achieve acceptable resolution within actionable time frames.     

Nutritional Quality of Forages Consumed by Feral Horses: The Horses of Shackleford Banks

This preliminary study describes the nutritional profiles of the horses of Shackleford Banks, NC. Nutrient composition of plants was analyzed during the four seasons over 2 years. Microhistological examination of the feces was used to determine the contribution of the various plant types to the horse’s diet. Together, this information provided an estimate of the nutrient profile for these horses. There were significant differences in nutrient content between the main plant types analyzed, as well as differences between the seasons for several nutrients (such as crude protein [CP] and acid detergent fiber [ADF]). Grasses were the primary plant type found in the feces of the horses, although forbs were also found, particularly in the winter and spring. It is likely that plant availability and palatability affect selection because plant nutrient content did not have a significant relationship with consumption. The yearly diet had an average of 6.6% ± 1.4% CP, 0.5% ± 0.1% calcium, 0.1% ± 0.03% phosphorus, 8.3 ± 2.25 ppm copper, 23.2 ± 4.70 ppm zinc, and 1.9 ± 0.07 Mcal/kg digestive energy (DE). Thus, even at an intake of 3% of body weight, these horses are likely deficient in phosphorus, zinc, and copper several times throughout the year. Future studies should include expanded plant sampling, habitat information, additional fecal samples, and body condition scores of the horses.     

Seasonal Variation in Habitat Selection by Free-Ranging Feral Horses Within Alberta’s Forest Reserve

Little is known about habitat selection by free-ranging feral horses in Montane environments, including how horse use may vary seasonally throughout the year. We tracked four global positioning system collared horses in four separate harems between November 2008 and October 2010 for a portion of the Rocky Mountain Forest Reserve in southwest Alberta, Canada. We assessed seasonal habitat selection for the study period by combining locational data with landscape data (including vegetation types) in an information theoretic framework. Home ranges for horses varied from 12.4 to 90 km² and were confined to local watersheds. Horses selected most for lowland grasslands across all seasons, with shrublands increasingly selected in spring and summer. Harvested conifer forests were only selected by horses during winter. Resource selection functions indicated that in addition to vegetation type, horses were selecting for a variety of habitat characteristics (i.e., distance to forest and solar radiation), while water availability, topographic accessibility, and disturbance features (e.g., distance to roads, recreational trails, and seismic lines associated with energy exploration) had little or no influence on horse selection. Overall, horses demonstrated selection for habitats covering 14% of the study area while avoiding 42% of habitats: remaining areas were used in proportion to their availability. Concentration of horse use within sparse vegetation types (grassland and shrubland), particularly during one or more times of the year, help identify critical horse habitat including areas where multiple, overlapping land uses interact on public land.     

Morphometry and abnormalities of the feet of Kaimanawa feral horses in New Zealand

Objective The present study investigated the foot health of the Kaimanawa feral horse population and tested the hypotheses that horses would have a large range of foot morphology and that the incidence of foot abnormality would be significantly high. Procedures Abnormality was defined as a variation from what the two veterinarian assessors considered as optimal morphology and which was considered to impact negatively on the structure and/or function of the foot. Fifteen morphometric variables were measured on four calibrated photographic views of all four feet of 20 adult Kaimanawa feral horses. Four morphometric variables were measured from the lateromedial radiographs of the left forefoot of each horse. In addition, the study identified the incidence of gross abnormality observed on the photographs and radiographs of all 80 feet. Results There was a large variation between horses in the morphometric dimensions, indicating an inconsistent foot type. Mean hoof variables were outside the normal range recommended by veterinarians and hoof care providers; 35% of all feet had a long toe conformation and 15% had a mediolateral imbalance. Abnormalities included lateral (85% of horses) and dorsal (90% of horses) wall flares, presence of laminar rings (80% of horses) and bull-nose tip of the distal phalanx (75% of horses). Both hypotheses were therefore accepted. Conclusions The Kaimanawa feral horse population demonstrated a broad range of foot abnormalities and we propose that one reason for the questionable foot health and conformation is lack of abrasive wearing by the environment. In comparison with other feral horse populations in Australia and America there may be less pressure on the natural selection of the foot of the Kaimanawa horses by the forgiving environment of the Kaimanawa Ranges. Contrary to popular belief, the feral horse foot type should not be used as an ideal model for the domestic horse foot.     

蒙古马肠道细菌总DNA提取方法的比较

本试验采集蒙古马新鲜粪便样品,采用酚－氯仿抽提法和2种细菌基因组DNA提取试剂盒法进行样品中细菌基因组DNA的提取。通过DNA浓度和纯度的测定,并将其作为模板扩增细菌16S rDNA V3区特异性片段对提取效果进行比较,从而找出更适合蒙古马粪便中细菌基因组DNA的提取方法。结果显示,3种提取方法得到的基因组DNA均能用于PCR扩增的模板,其中B试剂盒法提取的DNA数量较多,且纯度高,更适合用于提取蒙古马肠道微生物细菌基因组DNA及后续的蒙古马肠道微生物多样性等分子生物学试验。     

Management of Chronic Diarrhea in an Adult Horse

Chronic diarrhea could be a challenge from both the diagnostic and therapeutic point of view. This case report will discuss the clinical approach to the evaluation of chronic diarrhea with the production of free fecal water in an adult horse. The discussion of this case report may provide further information and describe a possible therapeutic option with sulfasalzine, focusing on the nutritional management of chronic diarrhea in adult horses. Nutritional management could be of higher importance for horses that suffer from this problem because it improves the well-being of the hindgut environment. In the present case report, motility abnormalities were identified without other physiological disturbances of colonic function or a decrease in body weight, and the priority was the following: (1) rebalancing of the diet to the real nutritional requirements of the patient, (2) avoiding excess carbohydrate from both forage and concentrate, (3) selecting the right proportion between good quality first-cut meadow hay and grounded and pelleted meadow hay that helps to reduce mechanical and physical load of the colon and could help in the formation of more homogeneous digesta, (4) reducing the stress with adequate feed consumption time, meal size, and time spent in a overgrazed paddock, and (5) increasing the proportion of omega-3 fatty acids in the diet. With the nutritional plan and management and the initial use of sulfasalazine, the horse maintained a good quality of the feces with a reduced or absent production of the free fecal water.     

Fiber digestion and voluntary intake in horses after adaptation to extensive large-colon resection

Each of 3 digestion trials (3 forage diets) was performed on 2 groups of horses 6 to 12 months after sham operation (group 1; n = 3) or large-colon resection (group 2; n = 5). Diets were alfalfa pellets, alfalfa hay, and grass hay. Feed and fecal analyses were performed to determine apparent digestion of dry matter, organic matter, and crude protein and true digestion of dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, total plant cell wall, hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. Additional fecal and metabolic variables determined were percentage of fecal water, total fecal water, metabolic organic matter, metabolic crude protein, and metabolic nitrogen. Large-colon resection decreased the digestion of plant cell wall because of decreased digestion of cellulose in alfalfa pellet and grass hay diets, but not in alfalfa hay diet. Insufficient digestible energy and/or protein from grass hay was obtained by horses with colon resection, and significant (P less than 0.05) weight loss was observed. Voluntary intake was significantly (P less than 0.05) increased by horses with colon resection. Of the diets studied, alfalfa hay was the most appropriate forage diet, compared with average grass hay and alfalfa pellet diet, for horses after extensive large-colon resection. Additionally, horses with colon resection may have higher levels of feed intake than do horses without colon resection.     

Management Strategies of Free-Roaming Horses in Alberta Compared with Other Jurisdictions

Management strategies of free-roaming species are subject to polarizing debates around the world. This paper provides perspectives on free-roaming horse management strategies practiced in Alberta and compares them against national management strategies used in Canada and internationally (United States and Australia) to illustrate importance of science-based and socially inclusive management schemes. Owing to their pluralistic status as an introduced and culturally significant species of western Canada, free-roaming horse populations are a contentious environmental management issue in Alberta. Some stakeholders (e.g., indigenous people, horse and animal rights advocates) believe the government aims to extirpate free-roaming horses in favor of cattle grazing. However, the Albertan government and ranchers believe it is important to conserve and manage free-roaming horse populations for all land users while minimizing adverse environmental effects in sensitive foothill and mountain grasslands and associated riparian areas in Alberta. Despite this contention, a systematic approach that is mindful of the history and cultural value of horses to society is required to properly manage this species. Best management practices from case studies were used to compare against four main concerns identified from the literature of free-roaming horse management used in Alberta. Concerns include 1) cultural heritage values, 2) free-roaming (or wild) horse designation, 3) lack of scientifically rigorous population monitoring, and 4) societal considerations. Ecological effects of free-roaming horses and human dimensions of their management are discussed. It is recommended that lessons learned from other jurisdictions be applied to free-roaming horse management in Alberta to provide a more holistic framework as the government develops a “feral horse management strategy.”     

Mortality and Operational Attributes Relative to Feral Horse and Burro Capture Techniques Based on Publicly Available Data From 2010-2019

Management of excessive feral horse (Equus ferus caballus) and burro (Equus asinus) populations in the United States and globally has been a controversial subject for decades. I reviewed all available US federal feral horse and burro daily gather reports from 2010 to 2019 to extract equine species, technique (bait trapping or helicopter gathering), reason (emergency or other), number gathered, number of mortalities, and mortality attributes (acute or chronic/pre-existing condition, specific cause). I found 70 reports (bait trapping burros n = 10, bait trapping horses n = 24, helicopter gathering horses n = 21) from 9 states (AZ, CA, CO, ID, MT, NV, OR, UT, WY) representing 28,821 horses and 2,005 burros. For bait trapping, 100 animals died (4 burros, 96 horses) with 16 acute causes (1 burro, 15 horses) and 84 chronic/pre-existing causes (3 burros, 81 horses). For helicopter gathering, 268 horses died with 62 acute causes and 206 chronic/pre-existing causes. Mortality ratios did not differ by capture technique (P > .05) for broken necks, emaciation, acute causes, or chronic/pre-existing causes. The most common mortality-causing problems were structural deformations, club foot, blindness, and emaciation. The more horses gathered per day resulted in a greater proportion of chronic/pre-existing mortalities for both trapping techniques, but only an increase of acute mortalities for helicopter gathering. The slope suggests 1 acute mortality for every 300 horses gathered. The capture mortality rate across all gathers [1.1% (368 mortalities out of 30,826 horses and burros captured)] is below a general threshold of 2% suggested for wildlife studies.     

Genetic variation in the feral horses of the Namib Desert, Namibia

Genetic variation at 7 blood-group and 10 biochemical genetic loci was examined in 30 horses from a feral herd from the Namib Desert of Namibia, Africa. The observed genetic variability was extremely low compared with that found in domestic horse breeds. The low variation was most probably a result of recent small population size and a small founding population size. Genetic comparison of the Namib horses, which were of unknown origins, to domestic horse breeds, showed that the Namib horses had the highest genetic similarity to Arabian type horses, although they did not closely resemble this type of horse in conformation.     

Horse Activity is Associated with Degraded Subalpine Grassland Structure and Reduced Habitat for a Threatened Rodent

Feral (wild) horses present significant challenges for landscape managers. A major effect of horses is trampling, which erodes soil and alters vegetation cover, which is often critical habitat for threatened animals. We examined the direct and indirect impacts of horses, kangaroos, and rabbits on the broad-toothed rat (Mastacomys fuscus), a threatened rodent in subalpine grasslands in Kosciusko National Park, which contains a large wild horse population. Our objective was to examine the relationship between the activity of different herbivores and 1) structural attributes of the vegetation (cover and density of different plant groups) and 2) length of broad-toothed rat runways and the presence of scat along these runways as proxies of broad-toothed rat activity. We assessed herbivore activity and measured vegetation cover, structure, and richness and total length of runways used by broad-toothed rats as a measure of activity. We used structural equation modeling to test the hypothesis that horse activity would lead to reductions in rat habitat directly, by increasing disturbance, and indirectly, by altering vegetation structure. Quadrats showing no evidence of horse activity had longer broad-toothed rat runways, taller but fewer grasses, double the shrub cover, and lower plant richness than quadrats showing evidence of horse activity. Structural equation modeling showed that there were no significant direct associations between horse activity and rat activity. However, increasing horse activity was associated with an indirect negative effect on broad-toothed rat activity by suppressing the positive relationship between grass height and rat activity. There were no significant effects of rabbits on any environmental variables, and kangaroo grazing was associated with an increase in shrub cover only. Disturbance by horses likely alters vegetation structure, by reducing grass height, making it less suitable for broad-toothed rats, thereby reducing their populations. Horses should be restricted from accessing critical broad-toothed rat habitat.     

The wild horse controversy

Differing viewpoints regarding wild (feral) horse management have resulted in majorcontroversy for public land management. While the livestock industry has not advocated the eradication of wild horses, much of the publicity on the issue has given this misleading impression. The livestock industry has advocated wild horse management. Wild horse herds have, in some cases, presented major management conflicts for ranchers when they have been allowed to multiply to uncontrolled numbers. In many areas, wild horse management has been secondary in priority to completion of environmental impact statements. During this interim period, wild horse herds have gone without management. Livestock numbers have been regulated by management agencies in accordance with forage production. Wild horses also must be managed within the carrying capacity of the rangeland. Management plans developed and implemented jointly by all interested factions present the best viable solution to the wild horse controversy.     

Near Infrared Spectroscopy and Fecal Chemistry as Predictors of the Diet Composition of White-Tailed Deer

Overbrowsing by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus Zimmermann) on Anticosti Island (Canada) created a need to develop efficient methods for estimating their foraging patterns. We tested the ability of near infrared (NIR) spectra of feces and of fecal chemical properties to predict diet composition of different individuals. We first used a principal component-based discriminant analysis to sort the NIR spectra of fecal samples (n = 102) obtained from two groups of captive deer that had been fed two different diets. The diets differed only in their relative abundance of balsam fir (Abies balsamea [L.] P.Mill.) and white spruce (Picea glauca [Moench] Voss.) foliage. The calibrated model allowed us to assign 28 of 30 validation fecal samples (93.3 %) to the correct diet. In a second study, we attempted to estimate the proportion of coniferous, deciduous, herbaceous, and lichenous forages in diets of free-ranging white-tailed deer, as determined by fecal microhistology. Both NIR spectra and chemical properties of feces were used as predictors of diet composition. NIR spectra were analyzed using partial least-squares regression (PLSR), whereas fecal chemical properties were analyzed using mixed-linear regressions (MLRs). The PLSR models were robust (R² = 0.89; ratio of prediction to deviation = 3.2) for predicting the amount of coniferous fragments, but not for predicting the relative amounts of balsam fir, white spruce, and deciduous and lichenous fragments within feces. MLR models revealed a positive relationship (47% variance explained) between acid detergent lignin (ADL) and coniferous fragments within feces. ADL and cellulose explained 24% of variance in deciduous fecal fragments, whereas ADL alone explained 22% of variance in balsam fir fecal fragments. These results suggest that NIR spectroscopy and fecal chemical properties have several applications on Anticosti Island, such as measuring the degree of variation in diets within a given home range or determining dietary conifer intake during winter.     

Candidate genes for physical performance in the horse

Intense selection for speed, endurance or pulling power in the domestic horse (Equus caballus) has resulted in a number of adaptive changes in the phenotype required for elite athletic performance. To date, studies in humans have revealed a large number of genes involved in elite athletic performance, but studies in horses are rare. The horse genome assembly and bioinformation tools for genome analyses have been used to compare human performance genes with their equine orthologues, both to retrieve pathways for these genes and to investigate their chromosomal distribution. In this review, 28 candidate genes for equine performance are presented that have polymorphisms associated with human elite athletic performance and may have impact on athletic performance in horses. A significant accumulation of candidate genes was found on horse chromosomes 4 and 12. Genes involved in pathways for focal adhesion, regulation of actin cytoskeleton, neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, and calcium signalling were over-represented. Genome-wide association studies for athletic performance in horses may benefit from the strong conserved synteny of the chromosomal arrangement of genes in humans and horses.     

Digestion, fecal, and blood variables associated with extensive large colon resection in the horse

Nutritional alterations were evaluated in 9 horses before surgery and 3 weeks, 3 months, and 6 months (4 total trials) after sham operation (group 1; n = 3) or extensive large colon resection (group 2; n = 6). Feed and fecal analyses were performed to determine apparent digestion of dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, manganese, zinc, copper, and iron, and true digestion of dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, total plant cell wall, hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. Additional fecal and metabolic variables included the percentage of fecal water (water in the feces), total fecal water, metabolic organic matter, metabolic crude protein, and metabolic nitrogen. A CBC and standard series of biochemical tests were performed. Large colon resection decreased (P less than 0.05) the true digestion of dietary crude protein and cellulose and apparent digestion of phosphorus, and it increased the fecal metabolic matter and water loss. Total fecal output increased 45% and total fecal water increased 55%. Phosphorus digestion was decreased (P less than 0.05) in group-2 horses, but effects of this were not detected on analysis of blood variables or on physical examination. Nevertheless, after extensive large colon resection, horses can regain body weight lost after surgery and have no overt physical changes when fed an alfalfa pellet diet that meets greater-than-maintenance requirements. Ad libitum water access is suggested, because these horses may have to consume 2 gal/day more than would normal horses.     

Investigations of the maintenance system of the Konik Polski horse and its effects on fecal microbiota activity during the winter and summer seasons

Gastrointestinal microbiota play a key role in the nutrients digestion and hence maintaining animal health and welfare. The diet offered to the animals in captivity may differ considerably from that on natural pastures. In a stabled maintenance system, horses have a limited choice of habitat and feed. Time spend for feeding is relevant for equine welfare because the reduction of the time devoted for foraging may be responsible for inducing gastric inflammation and ulceration. Therefore, in the present study, it was hypothesized that fecal bacterial fermentative processes differ between free-roaming and stabled Konik Polski Horses (KPHs) with respect to microbial enzymatic activity, and thus the fecal concentration of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), which can be further utilized for assessing the feeding behavior and welfare in free-roaming versus stabled horses. The SCFA concentration and profile, as well as the extracellular and intracellular activities of selected bacterial enzymes, were characterized in horse feces collected during the winter and summer feeding seasons. The results showed higher enzymatic activity and SCFA production in the feces excreted by free-roaming versus stabled horses, especially during summer. An increase in pasture plant diversity may be beneficial for the gastrointestinal microbiota and hence for maintaining health and welfare.     

The Potential for Horses to Disperse Alien Plants Along Recreational Trails

Plant invasions are rapidly becoming an important threat to the conservation of wildlands. Understanding how potentially invasive plants are dispersed to new habitats is a critical step in the process of understanding such invasions. Our objective was to characterize the potential for long-distance transport of plant species in the digestive tract of horses along recreational trails. We sampled horse dung along the first 4 000 m of the Lower Piney River trail in the White River Forest of western Colorado. We evaluated the seed content of each sample by applying standard methods for soil seed bank analysis. We found 20 species and 564 seedlings. Twelve of the species were graminoids, 6 were forbs, 1 was a shrub, and 1 was a tree. The species were evenly divided between natives and aliens, but 85% of the seedlings were aliens. An average of 47 seedlings emerged per sample, but the range was from 4 to 192. Our results make it clear that horses, and very likely all pack stock used on recreational trails, represent a potentially important dispersal vector for alien plants into western wildlands.     

Epidemiology of Sarcocystis neurona infections in domestic cats (Felis domesticus) and its association with equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) case farms and feral cats from a mobile spay and neuter clinic

Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) is a serious neurologic disease in the horse most commonly caused by Sarcocystis neurona. The domestic cat (Felis domesticus) is an intermediate host for S. neurona. In the present study, nine farms, known to have prior clinically diagnosed cases of EPM and a resident cat population were identified and sampled accordingly. In addition to the farm cats sampled, samples were also collected from a mobile spay and neuter clinic. Overall, serum samples were collected in 2001 from 310 cats, with samples including barn, feral and inside/outside cats. Of these 310 samples, 35 were from nine horse farms. Horse serum samples were also collected and traps were set for opossums at each of the farms. The S. neurona direct agglutination test (SAT) was used for both the horse and cat serum samples (1:25 dilution). Fourteen of 35 (40%) cats sampled from horse farms had circulating S. neurona agglutinating antibodies. Twenty-seven of the 275 (10%) cats from the spay/neuter clinic also had detectable S. neurona antibodies. Overall, 115 of 123 (93%) horses tested positive for anti-S. neurona antibodies, with each farm having greater than a 75% exposure rate among sampled horses. Twenty-one opossums were trapped on seven of the nine farms. Eleven opossums had Sarcocystis sp. sporocysts, six of them were identified as S. neurona sporocysts based on bioassays in gamma-interferon gene knockout mice with each opossum representing a different farm. Demonstration of S. neurona agglutinating antibodies in domestic and feral cats corroborates previous research demonstrating feral cats to be naturally infected, and also suggests that cats can be frequently infected with S. neurona and serve as one of several natural intermediate hosts for S. neurona.     

Preliminary Analysis of the Results of Selective Therapy Against Strongyles in Pasturing Horses

Control of horse parasites often omits application of measures to eradicate the free-living stages in pastures and frequently relies on chemotherapy only. Selective therapy was used for Spanish Sport horses grazing either in the same pasture (continuous) or in rotated meadows. In each group, equines exceeding a cutoff value of 300 strongyle eggs per gram of feces received ivermectin or moxidectin. Efficacy of the treatment was assessed by estimating reduction of fecal egg counts and the number of horses shedding parasite eggs (PHR). Coprocultures revealed presence of the cyathostomins Cyathostomum and Gyalocephalus spp. In all treated groups, a 100% value for both reduction of fecal egg counts and PHR against cyathostomins was obtained, and PHR values ranged from 100% to 12%. The longest strongyle egg reappearance period was observed in horses undergoing rotation grazing and receiving ivermectin (9 weeks), compared with a 6-week period recorded for the other treated equines. Our results seem to point that the efficacy of selective therapy in equine herds could be reduced if the horses with fecal egg counts below the threshold value (thus not receiving chemotherapy) remain grazing in the same pastures with the treated ones. It is strongly suggested that interested parties consider performing periodic fecal analyses to monitor fecal egg counts, together with the percentage of horses passing eggs in feces, to improve the effect of this procedure.