Approaches to modernization of the state soil map of Russia on the basis of the methods of digital soil mapping

The ways of further development of the State Soil Map (SSM) of the Russian Federation are discussed. This map represents the most valuable product of soil mapping projects in Russia. It has been developed since the 1930s. A long duration of the map compilation has resulted in certain differences in the methods of mapping, topographic base, and classification decisions applied on separate pages of the map. Another specific feature of the SSM is related to different amounts of soil information available for different parts of the country. At present, two major challenges face researchers working on this map. First, it is necessary to preserve rich information collected by several generations of Russian pedologists and reflected on the map. Second, this information has to be renewed on the basis of new information sources (satellite images, modern topographic base, and new data on soils and their geography), common ideology of the map, and new digital technologies of the map compilation. The analysis of several pages of the map on the territory of the North Caucasus is discussed. An algorithm of introducing corrections to the map and its renewal is suggested. In the course of our work, a digitized version of two pages of the map, the digital elevation model, and Landsat imagery were used. The cartographic work was performed using GeoDraw software. Our experience in the correction and renewal of the SSM attests to the high potential of the methods of digital soil mapping for these purposes. The analysis of the map in the GIS environment makes it possible to reveal possible drawbacks in the initial map pages and to suggest feasible methods of their correction and further development of the SSM.     

Analysis of structure and composition of soil cover in the Salym-Irtysh interfluve based on updated medium-scale soil map

Specific features of the structure and composition of the soil cover in the Salym-Irtysh interfluve, Western Siberian Lowland, are studied with consideration of the capabilities of digital mapping. The properties of predominating and accompanying soils, which determine the modern status of boreal landscapes, are evaluated. Aspects of genesis and the Quaternary history of the investigated region are analyzed by a comparative approach. Possible trends of soil-plant cover transformation under climate changes are discussed.     

Analysis on pedodiversity and spatial subset representativity—the German soil map 1:1,000,000

Knowledge about spatial soil variation in terms of measured pedodiversity, as well as the spatial distribution of soils in terms of spatial subset representativity, offers the possibility to estimate the quality and variance within a soil map. Additionally, it can help to identify representative sample locations. Demonstrated at the German soil map at a scale of 1:1,000,000, this study describes a methodology to analyze the distribution of taxonomical pedodiversity using the Simpson index and a new approach to derive representative spatial subsets based on a modified χ²‐test (χ_m²), which can be used as monitoring areas. To analyze the spatial composition of the soil map and to detect differences in the underlying mapping schemes of the German soil map 1:1,000,000, three different spatial data structures were studied: (1) the entire soil map, (2) the soil map segmented into geomorphological regions, and (3) the soil map segmented into the Federal States of Germany. Representative patches of varying sizes were statistically derived for all spatial subsets as well as the entire soil map ranging from 20 km × 20 km up to 70 km × 70 km. The results show that the measured pedodiversity is linked to both the geomorphology as well as the political borders of the Federal States. On the one hand, this reveals the uncertainty of measuring pedodiversity on the basis of soil‐class maps as the spatial representation of pedodiversity is influenced by the different mapping traditions and methods applied in the 16 Federal States of Germany. On the other hand, it allows the analysis of the aggregation schemes of different landscapes. The presented approach helps to understand large soilscapes and to compare different soil maps of different states and countries as well as to enhance the soil map with additional information. Furthermore, the representative patches can be used to select soil‐monitoring areas.     

Digital soil map of the Ussuri River basin

On the basis of digital soil, topographic, and geological maps; raster topography model; forestry materials; and literature data, the digital soil map of the Ussuri River basin (24400 km²) was created on a scale of 1: 100000. To digitize the initial paper-based maps and analyze the results, an ESRI ArcGIS Desktop (ArcEditor) v.10.1 (http://www.esri.com) and an open-code SAGA GIS v.2.3 (System for Automated Geoscientific Analyses, http://www.saga-gis.org) were used. The spatial distribution of soil areas on the obtained digital soil map is in agreement with modern cartographic data and the SRTM digital elevation model (SRTM DEM). The regional soil classification developed by G.I. Ivanov was used in the legend to the soil map. The names of soil units were also correlated with the names suggested in the modern Russian soil classification system. The major soil units on the map are at the soil subtypes that reflect the entire vertical spectrum of soils in the south of the Far East of Russia (Primorye region). These are mountainous tundra soils, podzolic soils, brown taiga soils, mountainous brown forest soils, bleached brown soils, meadow-brown soils, meadow gley soils, and floodplain soils). With the help of the spatial analysis function of GIS, the comparison of the particular characteristics of the soil cover with numerical characteristics of the topography, geological composition of catchments, and vegetation cover was performed.     

纸坊沟流域土壤酶活性与土壤肥力关系研究

本文通过野外调查和室内分析相结合,运用相关分析和通径分析等方法,研究了纸坊沟流域空间尺度范围内不同土地利用方式土壤肥力与土壤酶活性的内在关系。结果表明:土壤有机质、全氮、碱解氮、速效钾、脲酶、蔗糖酶、碱性磷酸酶和过氧化氢酶之间均呈极显著正相关;有机质、全氮和碱解氮通过直接作用和彼此间接作用成为影响脲酶、蔗糖酶、碱性磷酸酶和过氧化氢酶活性的主要因素,它们对4种酶的直接通径系数分别为0.148、0.415、0.345、-0.018;0.241、0.202、0.190、0.318和0.394、0.375、0.507、0.277;而pH对这4种酶活性的直接作用在很大程度上是通过其它因素的间接作用所抵消;4种土壤酶活性可以作为黄土丘陵沟壑区小流域土壤肥力的评价指标。     

Combining soil map and soil analysis for improved yield prediction

The choice of agricultural land use or management can be based entirely on a soil map or on results of soil analysis or on a combination of the two. This paper presents the kind of comparison that should form the basis for choosing among these alternatives. It is illustrated with the dry matter yield of barley (Hordeum vulgare cv. Julia) in topsoil samples.The results clearly indicate the superiority of the combination of mapping and analysis over either of these for crop yield prediction. Thus, subdividing the soil of the study area of 250 ha into 2, 3 and 4 mapping units reduced the undescribed variability from 100% to 93, 73 and 66% respectively. There was no further benefit from mapping into 5 and 6 units. Regressions of yield on values of 1, 2 and 3 soil properties reduced the undescribed variability to 62, 60 and 58& respectively. There was little benefit from including more soil properties in the regression. Regressions on 2 and 3 soil properties within each of 2 mapping units reduced the undescribed variability to 50 and 48%, while for 3 units it was reduced to 45 and 34% respectively.     

Effects of soil compaction on the relationships between nematodes,grass production and soil physical properties

As farm machinery has become heavier, concern has grown about its direct effects on soil physical conditions and its indirect effects on crop yields and soil biota. To study the relationships between these parameters, non-grazed temporary grassland plots on a loamy sand soil were subjected to full-width load traffic with widely different loads (0, 4.5, 8.5 and 14.5 t) one to four times per year for a period of 5 years. Soil bulk density was monitored as an indicator of soil compaction. Grass yield was measured throughout the experimental period. Root distribution over the soil profile and nematodes populations were assessed during the final year of the experiment. Results indicate that a moderate degree of compaction (∼4.5 t load) gave the highest crop yield and that at higher degrees of compaction roots failed to penetrate into the deeper soil layers (>20 cm depth). Total numbers of nematodes were not affected by compaction, but their distribution over the various feeding types shifted towards a population with increased numbers of herbivores and decreased numbers of bacterivores and omnivores/predators. This change in the structure of the nematode assemblage is associated with poorer conditions for crop growth.     

The development of detailed soil maps on the basis of interpolation of data on soil properties

A methodology for creating detailed soil maps on the basis of a dense grid of soil testing points and the numerical interpolation of experimental data on the soil properties is discussed. The study of the soil cover patterns combines regular sampling grids with equal spacing and additional sampling points chosen with due account for the soil cover specificity in particular areas. Soil diagnostics are performed at each of the points, and the diagnostic features of the soils are recorded in the field. In a laboratory, these data are arranged into a database, and a legend to the soil map is created. The necessary and sufficient set of the quantitative soil characteristics is selected, and quantitative criteria of the boundaries between the separate soil polygons are determined on the basis of numerical interpolation. Algorithms to delineate soil polygons on the basis of the selected indices are developed. Separate thematic map layers are produced for each of the selected soil characteristics. An integral soil map for the investigated area is obtained via the superposition of these layers. The thickness and/or the depths of the upper/lower boundaries of the soil layer with definite diagnostic characteristics making it possible to distinguish the given soil from its neighbors are used as the criteria for delineating the boundaries between soil polygons. Special criteria based on the proportions between the thicknesses or depths of several layers can also be applied for this purpose. The creation of a detailed soil map of a plot on the Kamennaya Steppe is discussed as an example of the practical application of this methodology.     

土壤环境质量数据库设计与实现

本文在研究和分析现有国内外土壤数据库建设方法及其应用现状的基础上,参考国内外土壤数据库设计与管理的相关标准和行业规范,探讨了土壤环境质量数据库的编码设计、结构设计及数据组织与存储方式,并以江苏省土壤环境质量数据为案例建立了示范性的土壤环境质量数据库管理系统。     

Integrating soil map information in modelling the spatial variation of continuous soil properties

This paper presents two indicator algorithms that integrate soil map information into modelling the spatial variation of continuous soil properties: these are simple indicator kriging with varying means and the Markov–Bayes algorithm. Both methods are used to evaluate probabilities for copper and cobalt deficiencies in the Borders Region of Scotland. Results are compared with maps obtained by the polygonal method (Thiessen polygons) and an indicator kriging algorithm that does not use soil map information. Accounting for soil map information is shown to improve delineation of the deficient areas, especially where the sampling is sparse. Test locations are classified as deficient or not so as to minimize an expected cost of mis-classification that is derived from local probability distributions of copper or cobalt and functions measuring the cost of overestimating or underestimating metal concentrations. The comparison of classification results with actual copper and cobalt concentrations at test locations shows that the two proposed algorithms can decrease substantially the economic loss attached to misclassification.     

Delineation of Japanese soil temperature regime map

The soil temperature regime map provides for utilitarian classification that can be superimposed on soil classification to permit more precise interpretations and assessments of land use. The objects of this study are (1) to clarify the relationship between soil temperature and meteo-geographical factors, and then (2) to delineate detailed soil temperature regime map (1?km grid) as Japanese land resources inventory. There was a parallel relationship between mean annual soil temperature (MAST) and mean annual air temperature (MAAT), but this relationship was affected to some extent by the mean annual wind speed and mean annual global irradiation in this study. Furthermore, the difference between MAST and MAAT [Diff(MAST–MAAT)] showed the highest correlation with elevation. The map of RK_Diff(MAST–MAAT) was computed using this meteo-geographical relationship with the regression-kriging approach, and then the map of MAST and the soil temperature regime map were delineated using the map of MAAT and the RK_Diff(MAST–MAAT). The root mean square error of this delineation procedure was 0.47°C. It was clear that the majority of the Japanese soils had “mesic” soil temperature regime, and Japanese agricultural land was mainly distributed at “mesic” area and followed by “thermic”, “frigid”, and “hyperthermic” area. For promoting this land resource inventory, the soil temperature regime map will be uploaded on “Soil Information Web Viewer (http://agrimesh.dc.affrc.go.jp/soil_db/)”, which is provided by the National Institute for Agro-Environmental Sciences.     

Use of a large world soil database for modeling the global soil distribution

The ISRIC WISE Global soil database is used to demonstrate the important role that large, properly established soil databases can play in the understanding and modeling of the global distribution of soils and their properties. This database, which contains 4382 georeferenced soil profiles, was systematically examined with respect to 128 environmental regimes, which exhibited combinations of different parent material, climate, and topography. There was generally good correlation of the WRB soil types and key soil properties with these environmental parameters. While most of the results are in accord with the standard theories of soil formation, there are several unexpected findings and subtle complexities that deserve further examination. The results allow for a reflection on soil genesis relationships and provide a useful base for the development of global soil predictive models.     

Estimation of the areas of salt-affected soils in the European part of Russia on the basis of a digital map of soil salinization on a scale of 1 : 2.5 M

A digital version of the map of salt-affected soils on a scale of 1 : 2.5 M has been used to calculate the areas of these soils in the four federal okrugs (the Southern, Central, Volga, and Northwestern) of European Russia. The total area of soils with soluble salts in the upper meter reaches 23.3 million ha. More than half of them are solonchakous soils (with soluble salts in the layer deeper than 30 cm), and about 25% are saline from the surface. Soils of sulfate and chloride-sulfate salinization predominate (>50% of the area of salt-affected soils). Alkaline soda-saline soils and soils with the participation of soda comprise about 6%. We consider this value to be underestimated and requiring refinement, because soils of solonetzic complexes with neutral salts in the upper horizons may also contain soda in the solonetzic and subsolonetzic horizons, which was not always taken into consideration upon assessing the chemical composition of the salts. Solonetzes proper and solonetzic soils predominate among the salt-affected soils in the European part of Russia. The area of solonetzes is up to 9.4 million ha. The area of solonetzic soils (including solonetzic soils with salts in the layers of 0–100 and/or 100–200 cm) is 15.5 million ha. The highest percentage (32.2%) of salt-affected soils is in the Southern federal okrug.     

A soil carbon and land use database for the United Kingdom

Abstract. The compilation of a database of soil carbon and land use is described, from which models of soil carbon dioxide emissions across the United Kingdom (UK) can be run. The database gives soil organic carbon, sand, silt and clay contents and bulk densities weighted to reference layers from 0 to 30 cm and from 30 to 100 cm depths. The data are interpolated from information on soil types and land use on a 1 km grid across the UK and are used to estimate soil carbon stocks. For 1990, the baseline year for the Kyoto Protocol on carbon emissions, the estimate is 4562 Tg soil organic carbon in the top 1 m of soil across the UK, with an average density of 18 kg m⁻². The data can be reported by layer (e.g. 54% in topsoils) and country (e.g. 48% in Scotland) as well as by soil and land type.     

土壤侵蚀/水土保持与气候变化的耦合关系

通过综述土壤侵蚀对碳循环的影响、全球气候变化对土壤侵蚀的影响以及水土保持植被恢复对碳循环与土壤碳素积累的影响,研究土壤侵蚀/水土保持与气候变化的耦合关系。结果表明:因侵蚀造成的土壤碳素损失是巨大的,但土壤侵蚀是碳源还是碳汇过程依然存在争议,焦点集中于因侵蚀造成土壤团聚体解体,暴露在空气中的土壤有机碳的矿化速率的大小;随着全球气温升高以及降雨格局的变化,全球土壤侵蚀强度和范围都在不断增加,但土壤侵蚀对全球气候变化的响应程度依然值得深入研究;水土保持生态恢复主要通过改变下垫面性质来改变土壤有机碳含量、影响土壤CO2释放并促进土壤碳素积累,对抑制大气CO2浓度升高能产生积极影响。尽管土壤侵蚀/水土保持与气候变化的耦合关系方面的研究已取得重大进展,但仍有待于在土壤侵蚀过程中碳素变化模型、土壤侵蚀过程中氮素迁移转化特征以及侵蚀劣地生态恢复过程中土壤碳素积累机制等方面加强研究。     

Biological soil amelioration as the basis of sustainable agriculture and forestry

Before the discovery of plant nutrients, soil amelioration and fertilization was by force of circumstance biological, i.e. done with substances taken from nature. After the discovery of plant nutrients, the chemical concept of fertility displaced the biological one. The defects of chemical cultivation — inefficiency, deterioration in product quality, diminishing productivity of soils and negative effects on the environment — have created an urgent need for the study of fertility as a result of the activity of the biocycles of the ecosystem. With the aid of the advances of modern science, we can understand the defects and deficiencies of the chemical concept of fertility and return the biological concept of fertility to its proper place. This in turn is a good starting point for productive research and developmental work towards an ecologically sustainable agriculture and forestry.     

Predicting soil properties from the Australian soil visible–near infrared spectroscopic database

There are reflectance spectra in the visible and near infrared wavelengths from some 20 000 archived samples of soil in Australia. Their particular forms depend on absorbances at specific wavelengths characteristic of components in the soil such as water, iron oxides, clay minerals and carbon compounds, and so one might expect to be able to predict soil properties from the spectra. We tested a tree‐based technique for the prediction of 24 soil properties. A tree is first constructed by the definition of rules that separate the data into fairly homogeneous groups for any given property on both the absorptions at specified wavelengths and other, categoric, variables. Then within each group the property is predicted from the absorptions at those wavelengths by ordinary least‐squares regression. The spectroscopic predictions of the soil properties were compared with actual values in a subset of sample data separated from the whole data for validation. The criteria of success that we used were the root mean squared error (RMSE) to measure the inaccuracy of our predictions, the mean error (ME) to measure their bias and the standard deviation of the error (SDE) to measure their imprecision. We also used the ratio of performance to deviation (RPD), which is the ratio of the standard deviation of the observed values to the RMSE of the predictions; the larger it is the better does the technique perform. We found good predictions (RPD>2) for clay and total sand content, for total organic carbon and total nitrogen, pH, cation exchange capacity, and exchangeable calcium, magnesium and sodium. Several other properties were moderately well predicted (1.5 ≤ RPD < 2); they included air‐dry water content, volumetric water content at field capacity and wilting point, bulk density, the contents of silt, fine sand and coarse sand, total and exchangeable potassium, total phosphorus and extractable iron. Properties that were poorly predicted (RPD < 1.5) include the carbon‐to‐nitrogen ratio, available phosphorus and exchangeable acidity. We conclude that even though the predictions are less accurate than direct measurements, the spectra are cheap yet valuable sources of information for predicting values of individual soil properties when large numbers of analyses are needed, for example, for soil mapping.     

State soil map of the Russian federation: An ArcInfo version

The results of the first stage of works on the creation of a digital version of the State Soil Map (SSM) in vector and raster formats are discussed. The inventory of all the sheets of the SSM has been performed. The map has been vectorized in strict correspondence to the scale and projections of the initial map sheets in paper format; i.e., the digitized version of the map exactly reproduces the soil polygons shown on the original map sheets. The methods and challenges of digital soil cartography are considered. With respect to the SSM, the importance of two major advantages of the digitized version of this map is emphasized: (a) the preservation of the initial materials in the new electronic formats and (b) the possibility to improve the map with the use of new materials, including satellite images, digital elevation models, and various thematic maps after the transformation of their scales and projections. The analysis of the SSM in the vector format makes it possible to systematize and formulate the major problems and difficulties related to this project and to suggest the particular technologies and methods of their solution; certain directions requiring the elaboration of new methods are outlined. The final goal of the project on the development of the digital version of the SSM is the creation of a unified consistent soil map of Russia on a scale of 1: 1 M.