Connectivity between island Marine Protected Areas and the mainland

In addition to protecting important species or ecosystems, ideally Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) should also act as propagule sources and be located where they can receive larval influxes so as to buffer species against local extinctions and allow genetic mixing. There are many examples of island MPAs across the world because of their advantages compared to mainland sites, and although evidence suggests they effectively protect biodiversity and may have localized fisheries benefits, their contribution to larval export and connectivity to mainland areas remains largely unknown; these are important aspects of MPA sustainability and functioning. Here I examined the genetic differentiation between four island MPAs in northern Europe and their respective mainlands, relative to differentiation of populations along the coast at similar spatial scales for two marine invertebrates (Semibalanus balanoides, planktonic larvae; Nucella lapillus, direct development). These data were used to infer past patterns of larval exchange between populations. Gene flow was restricted at all four locations between the islands and the mainland, compared to gene flow along the coast (for both species) and more distant islands had greater differentiation than those closer to the mainland for S. balanoides, but not for N. lapillus. My results of genetic analysis suggest that island MPAs may not provide as much larval export or receive as much buffering against local extinctions, compared with mainland populations (for a similar sized protected area). My findings are especially relevant to the creation of MPA networks and in understanding the importance of connectivity in achieving the greatest fisheries benefits and in ensuring inter-MPA linkages. Low levels of larval exchange may limit the success of any protected area and may prevent multiple conservation objectives from being achieved.     

Hindsight in marine protected area selection: A comparison of ecological representation arising from opportunistic and systematic approaches

Systematic approaches to site selection for marine protected areas (MPAs) are often favored over opportunistic approaches as a means to meet conservation objectives efficiently. In this study, we compared analytically the conservation value of these two approaches. We locate this study in Danajon Bank, central Philippines, where many MPAs were established opportunistically based on community preference, with few if any contributions from biophysical data. We began by identifying the biophysical data that would have been available when the first MPA was created in Danajon Bank (1995). We next used these data with the reserve selection software Marxan to identify MPAs that covered the same area as is protected under the current set of MPAs (0.32% of the total study area) and that would protect the greatest number of conservation targets at the lowest cost. We finally compared the conservation value of the current MPAs to the value of those selected by Marxan. Because of the dearth of biophysical data available in 1995 and the small area currently under protection, Marxan identified multiple configurations of MPAs that would protect the same percentage of conservation targets, with little differentiation among sites. Further, we discovered that the costs of obtaining and analyzing these data to be used for conservation planning would have been large relative to resources typically available to conservation planners in developing countries. Finally, we found that the current set of MPAs protected more ecological features than would be expected by chance, although not as many as could be protected using a systematic approach. Our results suggest that an opportunistic approach can be a valuable component of conservation planning, especially when biophysical data are sparse and community acceptance is a critical factor affecting the success of an MPA.     

Effect of the landscape context on the density and persistence of a predator population in a protected area subject to environmental variability

Protected areas are the most important tool for the conservation of biodiversity. However, many species are area-demanding and their populations seldom meet their space requirements in reserves. In this context, the unprotected exterior becomes an important part of their home range, and variations in habitat quality of the surroundings of a protected area might affect the dynamics of populations. Using a spatially explicit simulation model, we studied the effect of the surrounding landscape of a protected area on the density and persistence of a predator population inhabiting inside the reserve in different conditions of environmental variability. We simulated individuals of a predator population, their herbivorous prey and a vegetative substrate in a landscape comprised of a square protected area and different types of habitat quality outside the reserve. We studied the combination of three substrate qualities of protected area (inside) with three of the landscape context and three levels of variability of productivity. Our results showed that there were strong effects of both the relative quality of the surrounding landscape and of the environmental variability on the density and persistence of the simulated population inside the protected area. More importantly, we showed that complex patterns emerge when spatial heterogeneity and temporal variability interact with population dynamics. Specifically, under high environmental variability, when the protected area had a high habitat quality, the highest population persistence was not attained when the exterior was also of high quality, but when the surroundings had an intermediate quality. The latter result suggests that, under the mentioned conditions, small enhancements in the quality of the matrix may have, for some species, better effects on increasing persistence in small reserves than large and costly enhancements.     

Evaluating marine protected areas for the conservation of tropical coastal sharks

Global declines in shark populations have created uncertainty in the future status of many species and conservation efforts are urgently needed. Marine protected areas (MPAs) are used increasingly as conservation tools around the world, but how they benefit mobile and wide ranging species like sharks remains unclear. To evaluate the degree of protection MPAs may provide for sharks, we used an array of acoustic receivers to examine the movements and spatial use of two tropical coastal species within two MPAs in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia. Juvenile pigeye (Carcharhinus amboinensis) and adult spottail (Carcharhinus sorrah) sharks were fitted with acoustic transmitters from 2009 to 2010. Both species displayed long-term use of MPAs, with some individuals detected for longer than 600 days. The mean percentage of time C. amboinensis and C. sorrah spent inside MPAs was 22% and 32%, respectively. MPA use varied seasonally, with C. amboinensis spending a higher percentage of time inside MPAs in summer (mean = 28%) and C. sorrah spending a higher percentage of time inside MPAs in winter (mean = 40%). Although sharks used large areas inside MPAs, most individuals tended to use only half of the available protected space. In addition, all sharks made excursions from MPAs and individuals exited and re-entered at consistent locations along the MPA boundaries. These results demonstrate that MPAs have conservation benefits for shark populations by providing protection across different species and life stages, and tracking studies can be used to help tailor MPA design to maximize effectiveness.     

Assessing the performance of the existing and proposed network of marine protected areas to conserve marine biodiversity in Chile

The growing concern about the profound influence of human activities on marine ecosystems has been the driving force behind the creation of marine reserves in the last few decades. With almost 4200 km of coastline, Chile has not been the exception to this trend. A set of conservation priority sites has recently been proposed by the Chilean government to expand the current marine reserve network. In this study, we used the most comprehensive information currently available on the distribution of 2513 marine species in Chile to assess the efficiency of the existing system of marine protected areas (MPA) and the conservation priority sites identified by the government. Additionally, we evaluated the vulnerability of the reserve network selected with respect to threatening human activities. Our results show that both the existing protected areas and the proposed priority sites are relatively effective at protecting Chilean marine biodiversity. However, the majority of the species that are not represented within the existing or projected MPA network have very restricted distributions and are, therefore, of high conservation concern. To cover all species requires a network of 35 MPAs (46% of the total number of planning units). Many of the sites identified as irreplaceable present conflict with one or more human activities, particularly in the central region of the country. This study emphasizes the need for a systematic conservation planning approach to maximize the representation of species and prioritize those areas where conflicts between marine biodiversity conservation and human activities may occur.     

Community-based conservation results in the recovery of reef fish spawning aggregations in the Coral Triangle

In the Coral Triangle community-based marine protected areas (MPAs) are being established at a prolific rate. Their establishment can benefit both fisheries and biodiversity, and they provide both a socially and economically acceptable means of managing coral reefs in developing nations. However, because such MPAs are typically small (usually <0.5 km²), they will rarely provide protection to large mobile fishes. An exception to this limitation may exist when community-based MPAs are established to protect small sites where vital processes occur, such as fish spawning aggregations (FSAs). To test the effectiveness of small (0.1–0.2 km²) MPAs for protecting FSAs, we monitored three FSA sites where brown-marbled grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus), camouflage grouper (Epinephelus polyphekadion) and squaretail coralgrouper (Plectropomus areolatus) aggregate to spawn. Sites were monitored during peak reproductive periods (several days prior to each new moon) between January 2005 and November 2009. All three sites are located in New Ireland Province, Papua New Guinea, and had been exploited for decades, but in 2004 two sites were protected by the establishment of community-based MPAs. The third site continued to be exploited. Over the monitoring period densities of E. fuscoguttatus and E. polyphekadion increased at both MPAs, but not at the site that remained open to fishing. At one MPA the densities of E. polyphekadion increased tenfold. Our findings demonstrate that community-based MPAs that are appropriately designed and adequately enforced can lead to the recovery of populations of vulnerable species that aggregate to spawn.     

Persistence and conservation of a consumer-resource metapopulation with local overexploitation of resources

The monophagous flightless weevil Hadramphus spinipennis causes the frequent local extinction of its host plant Aciphylla dieffenbachii through overexploitation. Both species are endemic and restricted to the Chatham Islands group (New Zealand). The weevil is classified as endangered and the plant as a threatened species. As this herbivore-plant system is locally unstable long-term persistence only appears possible via a metapopulation structure in which subpopulations are connected by dispersal. This paper investigates this hypothesis using a spatially explicit model of a consumer population whose resource is patchily distributed. The parameters are adapted to the H. spinipennis-A. dieffenbachii system. Our model includes local population dynamics and dispersal of the consumer, the destruction of host plant patches due to foraging and their regeneration. The results show that the key factor for long-term persistence is the short-range dispersal of the consumer with high mortality during dispersal. Only this highly inefficient dispersal prevents the synchronisation of local dynamics while ensuring sufficient colonisation of regenerated patches. We also show that although synchronisation through spatially correlated environmental fluctuations may be critical for long-term persistence, it cannot replace the strong effects of dispersal. Thus, in a consumer-resource metapopulation with deterministic local extinction, the strength and spatial scale of consumer dispersal in relation to the spatial and temporal scales of the resource patch dynamics (patch destruction and regeneration, number, size and distance of patches) play a vital role for long-term persistence. The consequence for conservation management is that such metapopulations could in fact profit rather than suffer from decreasing connectivity of resource patches.     

Efficiency and effectiveness in representative reserve design in Canada: The contribution of existing protected areas

To be effective, reserve networks should represent all target species in protected areas that are large enough to ensure species persistence. Given limited resources to set aside protected areas for biodiversity conservation, and competing land uses, a prime consideration for the design of reserve networks is efficiency (the maximum biodiversity represented in a minimum number of sites). However, to be effective, networks may sacrifice efficiency. We used reserve selection algorithms to determine whether collections of existing individual protected areas in Canada were efficient and/or effective in terms of representing the diversity of disturbance-sensitive mammals in Canada in comparison to (1) an optimal network of reserves, and (2) sites selected at random. Unlike previous studies, we restricted our analysis to individual protected areas that met a criterion for minimum reserve size, to address issues of representation and persistence simultaneously. We also tested for effectiveness and efficiency using historical and present-day data to see whether protected area efficiency and/or effectiveness varied over time. In general, existing protected areas did not effectively capture the full suite of mammalian species diversity, nor are most existing protected areas part of a near-optimal solution set. To be effective, Canada’s network of reserves will require at minimum 22 additional areas of >2700 km². This study shows that even when only those reserves large enough to be effective are considered, protected areas systems may not be representative, nor were they representative at the time of establishment.     

Improving social acceptability of marine protected area networks: A method for estimating opportunity costs to multiple gear types in both fished and currently unfished areas

We present a novel method for calculating the opportunity costs to fishers from their displacement by the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs). We used a fishing community in Kubulau District, Fiji to demonstrate this method. We modelled opportunity costs as a function of food fish abundance and probability of catch, based on gear type and market value of species. Count models (including Poisson, negative binomial and two zero-inflated models) were used to predict spatial abundance of preferred target fish species and were validated against field surveys. A profit model was used to investigate the effect of restricted access to transport on costs to fishers. Spatial distributions of fish within the three most frequently sighted food fish families (Acanthuridae, Lutjanidae, Scaridae) varied, with greatest densities of Lutjanidae and Acanthuridae on barrier forereefs and greatest densities of Scaridae on submerged reefs. Modelled opportunity cost indicated that highest costs to fishers arise from restricting access to the barrier forereefs. We included our opportunity cost model in Marxan, a decision support tool used for MPA design, to examine potential MPA configurations for Kubulau District, Fiji Islands. We identified optimum areas for protection in Kubulau with: (a) the current MPA network locked in place; and (b) a clean-slate approach. Our method of modelling opportunity cost gives an unbiased estimate for multiple gear types in a marine environment and can be applied to other regions using existing species data.     

Assessing the effects of marine protected area (MPA) on a reef fish assemblage in a northwestern Mediterranean marine reserve: Identifying community-based indicators

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are increasingly envisaged as a tool to manage coastal ecosystems and fisheries. Assessment of their performance with respect to management objectives is therefore important. A number of MPAs provided conservation benefits for fished species. Observed benefits do not apply to all species at all times, and responses to protection are also highly variable among fish taxa. Among the many empirical studies on marine reserves, only a few designs considered ‘before and after data’ and spatial variation. In this paper, we are interested in assessing the effect of a no-take reserve on the reef fish assemblage in a northwestern Mediterranean example. Data were obtained from a three-year survey using underwater visual censuses (UVC), before and after MPA establishment. Permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) and multivariate regression trees (MRT) were used to evaluate the effects of reserve protection on the reef fish assemblage, while accounting for habitat. Modelled biological responses were abundances and diversity indices calculated at different levels of the assemblage. Significant effects were found for many of these metrics. In addition to PERMANOVA, univariate models provided more insight into the magnitude and direction of effects. The most sensitive metrics were related to large species and species targeted by fishing. These results may be used to choose the metrics that are more suitable as community-based indicators of MPA impact in the perspective of monitoring programs.     

An empirical evaluation of the area and isolation paradigm of metapopulation dynamics

Much of metapopulation theory assumes that the persistence of individual populations in a metapopulation, and persistence of the metapopulation as a whole, is best modeled by the area of habitat patches and their isolation. Estimates of isolation typically include a measure of geographic distance and a measure of either population size or patch area. This “area and isolation paradigm” assumes a functional relationship between the area of a patch and its extinction probability, and between isolation of a patch and its colonization probability. Although these assumptions are fundamental to use of incidence function models of metapopulation dynamics, the assumptions have been validated in only a small number of studies. We tested the ability of area and isolation to predict extinction and colonization patterns using multiple-year occupancy data for 10 species from three taxonomic groups (butterflies, amphibians, and birds). We examined 13 potential models of metapopulation dynamics. All models included four basic parameters: occupancy during the first year of the survey, probability of extinction, probability of colonization, and single-visit detection probability. In eight models, each parameter was either constant or time-dependent. Five models included a patch-level covariate of extinction probability (patch area or population size), colonization probability (connectivity, the inverse of isolation), or both. Extinction patterns generally were predicted more effectively as a function of local population size than as a function of patch area, a constant probability of extinction, or a time-dependent probability of extinction. In most cases, inclusion of connectivity as a patch-level covariate did not improve predictions of colonization patterns. We estimated single-visit detection probabilities for all species in our analyses, thus providing evidence-based guidelines for the refinement of future monitoring protocols.     

Incorporating connectivity into conservation planning: A multi-criteria case study from central Mexico

The interdigitation of the Nearartic and Neotropical biogeographic zones in the Transvolcanic Belt (TVB) of central Mexico provides the region with high faunal richness and endemicity. Biodiversity conservation in the TVB must accommodate the region’s human population of more than 40 million. The current study presents conservation plans for the TVB intended to protect 99 non-volant mammal species while minimizing the impact on the human population. A rarity-complementarity algorithm was used to select a conservation area network (CAN) from sites with untransformed vegetation to represent 10% of each species’ habitat. In addition, a new method was developed for augmenting the connectivity of CANs using graph theory. External sites were assigned quality scores based on the frequency with which they were selected at different targets of representation for species. Graph algorithms identified the highest-quality sites needed to link all conservation areas in an economical manner. These connectivity areas can facilitate migration or egress of biota in the event of local environmental stress. The network initialized with existing protected areas occupied 9.13% of the TVB, whereas the network built from scratch occupied 6.02%. In both cases, an additional area of only about 1.5% of the region was required to link all conservation areas in the network. Finally, a multiple criterion synchronization technique was used to select those connected networks which minimized both total area and human population impact.     

Incorporating connectivity into reserve selection procedures

Methods for selecting sites to be included in reserve networks generally neglect the spatial location of sites, often resulting in highly fragmented networks. This restricts the possibility of dispersal between sites, which for many species may be essential for long-term persistence. Here I describe iterative reserve selection algorithms which incorporate considerations of reserve connectivity and evaluate their performance using a data set for macroinvertebrates in ponds. Methods where spatial criteria were only invoked when ties between sites occurred did not perform significantly better than a simple greedy algorithm in terms of reserve connectivity. An algorithm based on a composite measure of species added and changes in reserve connectivity produced a reserve network with higher connectivity, but needed more sites to represent all species. A trade-off between connectivity and efficiency may be inevitable, but the costs in terms of efficiency may be justified if long-term persistence of species is more likely.     

Rapid evaluation of metapopulation persistence in highly variegated landscapes

The loss, alteration and fragmentation of faunal habitat affects the ability of species to persist in the landscape. Effective management and reconstruction of habitat to enhance species persistence needs to be informed by organism-centric approaches to evaluating alternative habitat scenarios. Such approaches need to be founded on sound ecological theory, be capable of integrating knowledge of dynamic ecological processes with data on the distribution and quality of habitat in spatially complex landscapes, and yet be simple and efficient enough for broad application.We describe a new methodology - rapid evaluation of metapopulation persistence (REMP) - that integrates a cost-benefit approach to measuring landscape connectivity, using continuously variable (i.e. raster) habitat surfaces, with existing analytical techniques for determining the metapopulation capacity of a given landscape and for predicting occupancy patterns within this landscape. By adapting these existing techniques to work with raster data structures REMP is particularly well-suited to analysis of highly variegated landscapes. REMP produces results rapidly using best-available habitat suitability mapping and a limited set of parameters defining species movement abilities and habitat area requirements. These parameters can be estimated from expert knowledge when no empirical data are available. The approach has been successfully integrated into landscape scenario development and evaluation systems, supporting conservation planning for native fauna in NSW, Australia.     

The effects of marine protected areas on the population dynamics of a South African limpet, Cymbula oculus, relative to the influence of wave action

Populations of a protandric limpet, Cymbula oculus, were compared between two South African Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), Dwesa and Tsitsikamma, and four exploited sites, and between sites exposed to or sheltered from strong wave action. Harvesting is decimating populations of this limpet. Compared with harvested sites, limpets in MPAs were 30-50% larger, adult densities 75% greater and biomass 30-90% greater. The female:male ratio was 0.58:1 inside the MPAs, but 0.11:1 at harvested sites. Growth rate and age-at-maturity were unaffected by harvesting, but survivorship was 10-fold higher inside MPAs, and reproductive output a staggering 80-fold higher. Conversely, recruitment was three times higher in harvested than protected areas, and inversely correlated with adult density. Wave action had negative effects of similar magnitude to harvesting. Limpets at sheltered sites were 65% larger, biomass 80% greater, female proportions 40% higher, survivorship 25% greater and growth 33% greater. Recruitment was, however, 45% greater at wave-exposed sites. All these effects were detected only inside the MPAs, being masked by harvesting elsewhere. The impacts of harvesting and wave action could never have been detected without the existence of MPAs, emphasizing their importance for base-line studies as well as protection. Dwesa MPA is under threat from poaching and demands for access to resources, but a strong case exists for retaining at least a core fully protected area. Our results clearly illustrate the need for MPAs among the tools used for coastal management.     

Misleading results from conventional gap analysis – Messages from the warming north

Gap analysis is a widely used method for assessing the representation of species in protected area (PA) networks. However, representation does not imply persistence. Here, we investigated whether gap analysis may result in misleading conservation guidelines by comparing the representation to two indicators of persistence. We ran a gap analysis with Finnish breeding birds and identified conservation priorities based on current distribution patterns. We tested the sensitivity of these results by using two target setting schemes and several thresholds defining the amount of protected area, and found the levels of representation identified by gap analysis to be robust. We then compared the gap analysis results with recent population trends and projected changes in potential suitable climate under different climate change scenarios for the year 2050. We show that although high latitude species are well represented in PAs, they are currently declining and are projected to lose climatic suitability in the near future. In contrast, low latitude species with poor representation in PAs have increasing population trends and are generally expected to expand their ranges into protected areas in the near future. This study demonstrates with empirical data a mismatch between representation in PAs and population trends, resulting in misleading understanding of current PA effectiveness. The mismatch is linked to the latitude of species distributions and corresponds to expected future changes, indicating that the patterns are potentially driven by climate change. We therefore urge practitioners and researchers to include better indicators of persistence in gap-analysis frameworks even for short term assessments.     

Plantation clearcut size and the persistence of early-successional wildlife populations

Plantation clearcuts represent an important habitat for many open-area wildlife species – including conservation-concern species – in landscapes dominated by industrial forests. However, due to the ephemeral nature of clearcuts, species using this type of environment face a “shifting mosaic” in which their ability to successfully relocate to another habitat patch may play a crucial role in the species’ persistence in the landscape. Although several studies have shown a positive effect of patch size on the persistence of open-habitat species, forest clearcutting represents a special case in which, on average, larger patches also tend to be more isolated from each other, likely creating a trade-off between area and isolation effects. We developed an individual-based spatially-explicit model to test the effect of clearcut size (a critical management variable in plantation forestry) on the persistence of generic early-successional wildlife species in a landscape dominated by forest plantations. We simulated a landscape covered with a plantation harvested regularly over a 25-year rotation and different versions of a wildlife population whose habitat was constituted only by 1–4 year-old patches. We observed that when the species could perceive the attributes of the neighboring pixels persistence time was higher at intermediate clearcut sizes agreeing with our prediction. Also, species with a high dispersal capacity were less limited by connectivity and reached their maximum persistence at higher clearcut sizes. Results also showed a positive effect of habitat lifetime on persistence. Our results suggest large clearcuts may be incompatible with the conservation of many early-successional vertebrates that have limited dispersal capacity, unless additional conservation measures, such as the use of corridors or special spatial arrangement of clearcuts, are taken to overcome the lack of connectivity.     

Village size and forest disturbance in Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Ghats, India

Habitat fragmentation, land cover change and biodiversity loss are often associated with village communities in protected areas, but the extent and intensity of such impacts are often inadequately assessed. We record resource use and depletion by human inhabitants by conducting ecological surveys in six villages and social surveys in all 13 villages of varying sizes in India’s Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary (492 km²). We examined the occurrence of 10 regionally-specific ecological indicators that encompassed several aspects of human activities. Thirty transects with 180 total sampling locations recorded the occurrence of these specific habitat disturbance variables. High correlations between the variables led to the use of principal component analysis to derive an effective summary index that reflected disturbance intensity and determined village ecological impacts spatially. A generalized linear model was fit to determine the rate at which disturbance decreases as we move away from village centers. Our model indicates that village size class, distance from the village and proximity to other villages were significant predictors of the disturbance index. The index distinguished each village’s spatially explicit ecological impact. We estimated that an average area of 23.7 km² of the forest surrounding the six focal villages was altered by human activities. These six villages have directly impacted 8-10% of this protected area.     

Long-term trends in lobster populations in a partially protected vs. no-take Marine Park

Increasing the level of protection afforded to the marine environment requires assessment of the efficacy of existing marine protected areas (MPAs) in protecting exploited species. Long-term data from before and after the establishment of MPAs provide a rare but valuable opportunity to assess these effects. In this study we present long-term data (1977-2005) from before and after park establishment, on the abundance of spiny lobster Jasus edwardsii from fixed sites in a no-take marine park and a recreationally fished marine park, to assess the efficacy of no-take vs. partial protection. Lobster densities were comparable between both marine parks prior to park establishment, but the response of lobster populations differed markedly following protection. On average, legal-sized lobster were eleven times more abundant and biomass 25 times higher in the no-take marine park following park establishment, while in the partially protected marine park there has been no significant change in lobster numbers. Furthermore, no difference was found in densities of legal-sized lobster between the partially protected marine park and nearby fully-fished sites (<1 per 500 m²). Long-term data from fully fished and partially protected sites suggest long-term declines in lobster populations and reflect regional patterns in catch per unit effort estimates for the fishery. The long-term patterns presented provide an unequivocal example of the recovery of lobster populations in no-take MPAs, but clearly demonstrate that allowing recreational fishing in MPAs has little benefit to populations of exploited species such as J. edwardsii.     

Patch connectivity and genetic diversity conservation in the federally endangered and narrowly endemic plant species Astragalus albens (Fabaceae)

To evaluate the sufficiency of US federal critical habitat designations and a proposed conservation plan in promoting the long-term persistence of the endangered plant Astragalus albens, patterns of genetic diversity and landscape connectivity were examined. A. albens harbors substantial genetic variation and shows no evidence of historic bottlenecks, suggesting little risk of extinction due to genetic homogeneity (A = 2.40; P = 0.50) or inbreeding (f = −0.08) within occurrences. Low genetic differentiation among occurrences (θ_p = 0.01) indicates relatively high gene flow or little genetic drift. The 91 patches of A. albens were connected into a single network at a distance of 2100 m; 94% of patches were <1000 m from at least one other patch. Managing ecological conditions that maintain large population sizes and connectivity among populations throughout the species’ ecological and geographic ranges will most likely conserve existing diversity. Both reserve networks partially accomplish these goals by including most extant occurrences and >89% of the aerial extent of the species, including the largest populations, and capturing all detected alleles. However, both conservation networks fail to conserve occurrences from one portion of the species’ range, possibly speeding loss of unique local adaptations. In addition, connectivity of the whole network is reduced with the 65 patches designated as critical habitat being connected at a distance of 6200 m and the proposed reserve sites being connected at a distance of 9500 m. Although total network connectivity would be reduced, connectivity at scales most relevant to gene flow (e.g., <1000 m) remains sufficiently in tact to provide a relatively promising outlook for species persistence.