Quantifying home range habitat requirements for bobcats (Lynx rufus) in Vermont,USA

We demonstrate how home range and habitat use analysis can inform landscape-scale conservation planning for the bobcat, Lynx rufus, in Vermont USA. From 2005 to 2008, we outfitted fourteen bobcats with GPS collars that collected spatially explicit locations from individuals every 4 h for 3–4 months. Kernel home range techniques were used to estimate home range size and boundaries, and to quantify the utilization distribution (UD), which is a spatially explicit, topographic mapping of how different areas within the home range are used. We then used GIS methods to quantify both biotic (e.g. habitat types, stream density) and abiotic (e.g. slope) resources within each bobcat’s home range. Across bobcats, upper 20th UD percentiles (core areas) had 18% less agriculture, 42% less development, 26% more bobcat habitat (shrub, deciduous, coniferous forest, and wetland cover types), and 33% lower road density than lower UD percentiles (UD valleys). For each bobcat, we used Akaike’s Information Criterion (AIC) to evaluate and compare 24 alternative Resource Utilization Functions (hypotheses) that could explain the topology of the individual’s UD. A model-averaged population-level Resource Utilization Function suggested positive responses to shrub, deciduous, coniferous forest, and wetland cover types within 1 km of a location, and negative responses to roads and mixed forest cover types within 1 km of a location. Applying this model-averaged function to each pixel in the study area revealed habitat suitability for bobcats across the entire study area, with suitability scores ranging between ?1.69 and 1.44, where higher values were assumed to represent higher quality habitat. The southern Champlain Valley, which contained ample wetland and shrub habitat, was a concentrated area of highly suitable habitat, while areas at higher elevation areas were less suitable. Female bobcat home ranges, on average, had an average habitat suitability score of near 0, indicating that home ranges consisted of both beneficial and detrimental habitat types. We discuss the application of habitat suitability mapping and home range requirements for bobcat conservation and landscape scale management.     

Effects of hunting with hounds on a non-target species living on the edge of a protected area

The impact of hunting on wildlife is a complex phenomenon which varies in space and across time, and yet limited knowledge is available on it. This is especially the case of the indirect effects of hunting on the behaviour of target as well as non-target species. Here we analyze how hunting affected the spatial behaviour of 62 radiocollared roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in a protected area adjacent to areas where hunting with hounds (target species: wild boar and hares) and stalking with rifles from high seats without dogs (target species: roe deer) were permitted during the hunting season. Our results showed that hunting caused a significant increase in the home range size of monitored deer, as well as a “reserve effect”, whereby roe deer used the protected area as a refuge from hunters. These behavioural responses were significant only at times when hunting with hounds was conducted, even though roe deer was not the target species of this technique. Reactions to the perceived risk of predation varied among age and sex classes, with yearling being more sensitive and using the protected area more than adults. As shown in our study, hunting harassment provoked by drives with hounds significantly affects the behaviour of non-target species. Therefore, the use of long-legged hounds represents a variable that should be carefully evaluated by wildlife managers in their management plans and conservation policies, especially when endangered or vulnerable species are present.     

Hunting habitat selection by hen harriers on moorland: Implications for conservation management

We examine habitat use by hunting hen harriers Circus cyaneus at three study sites in Scotland to evaluate whether foraging patterns differ between sexes, sites, and stages of the breeding period. We modelled time spent hunting in focal plots as a function of habitat and nest proximity. Male hunting intensity (time spent hunting per hour of observation and km²) varied between sites and breeding periods, being lower during the nestling than the incubation period. Habitat use patterns were mostly consistent among study sites, which is important for developing species management recommendations applicable over the species’ range. Males avoided improved grassland, and selected areas of mixed heather and rough grass (with an optimum at ca. 50% heather cover). The effect of nest proximity was small. In contrast, females hunted mainly within 300-500 m of the nest, with a small additive effect of vegetation cover, areas of fragmented heather being preferred. Habitat management to benefit foraging harriers will involve creating (or maintaining) mosaics of heather/grassland around nest areas. Additionally, it might be possible to manipulate habitat to reduce conflict in areas where harrier predation on red grouse is important by segregating areas holding highest grouse densities (with high heather cover) from those favoured for harrier foraging (heather-grass mosaics). However, it would be necessary to test whether these manipulations might also influence harrier nest distribution, an effect which could negate any benefits from this strategy.     

Conservation of non-game wildlife in California: A model programme

Public interest prompted the California State Legislature to provide needed authority and precedent-setting mandates for the management and protection of its non-game wildlife resources. Newly established activities and regulations include: research and field surveys on species-specific problems; the introduction of protective categories for threatened or unique species; bag limits and seasons on the taking of any unprotected animal; a moratorium on mountain lion hunting; measures to promote increases in the numbers of the rare Tule elk; curtailment of imported wildlife; a ban on the trade in endangered species; protective measures for intertidal organisms; and land acquisition of areas with important habitats. These constitute a comprehensive programme that merits wider adoption in the USA.     

Effects of landscape-scale broadleaved woodland configuration and extent on roost location for six bat species across the UK

Although forest fragmentation can greatly affect biodiversity, responses to landscape-scale measures of woodland configuration in Europe have been examined for only a limited range of taxa. Almost all European bat species utilise woodland, however little is known about how they are affected by the spatial arrangement of woodland patches. Here we quantify landscape structure surrounding 1129 roosts of six bat species and a corresponding number of control locations across the UK, to examine associations between roost location and landscape composition, woodland proximity and the size of the nearest broadleaved woodland patch. Analyses are performed at two spatial scales: within 1 km of the roost and within a radius equivalent to the colony home-range (3–7 km). For four species, models at the 1 km scale were better able to predict roost occurrence than those at the home-range scale, although this difference was only significant for Pipistrellus pipistrellus. For all species roost location was positively associated with either the extent or proximity of broadleaved woodland, with the greatest effect of increasing woodland extent seen between 0% and 20% woodland cover. P. pipistrellus, Pipistrellus pygmaeus, Rhinolophus hipposideros, Eptesicus serotinus and Myotis nattereri all selected roosts closer to broadleaved woodland than expected by chance, with 90% of roosts located within 440 m of broadleaved woodland. Roost location was not affected by the size of the nearest broadleaved patch (patches ranged from 0.06–2798 ha ± 126 SD). These findings suggest that the bat species assessed here will benefit from the creation of an extensive network of woodland patches, including small patches, in landscapes with little existing woodland cover.     

How does human exploitation affect impala populations in protected and partially protected areas? - A case study from the Serengeti Ecosystem, Tanzania

Human exploitation can have severe conservation implications for wildlife populations. In the Serengeti ecosystem, Tanzania, illegal hunting is a serious concern for wildlife management, and in this study we investigated if density, demography and behaviour can be used as indicators of human exploitation. We used impala (Aepycerus melampus) as a model species to study human exploitation inside and outside a strictly protected area. Over a six month period, a total of 2050 km of transects were driven in the different protected areas (National Park, Game Reserve, Open Area). Densities were estimated by using distance sampling and the partially protected areas were found to have significantly lower densities (4.3 ind/km²) than the National Park (15.3 ind/km²). A variation in density between different sections within the National Park was also found. However, we found no differences in group sizes. Moreover, the sex-ratio was more skewed towards females in the partially protected areas and in sections within the National Park close to villages. In addition, impalas showed higher alertness levels, and longer flight initiation distance to an approaching human in the partially protected areas compared to the National Park. The present harvest levels by illegal hunting in the study area are most likely the cause of the observed differences. Our results suggest that density, demography and behaviour can be used as indicators of human exploitation, but that this probably varies according to local hunting pressure. Furthermore, it could be expected that the results obtained in this study might reflect the state of other ungulates in the area, which raises concern whether management objectives for the buffer zones of Serengeti National Park are met.     

The spatial patterns of indigenous wildlife use in western Panama: Implications for conservation management

Measuring the impacts of indigenous hunting on neotropical wildlife populations remains a difficult task. Significant insights can be gained by analyzing the spatial patterns of hunting yields. This paper presents a geographic analysis of game captured by hunters in 59 households belonging to five neighbouring villages in western Panama over a period of 232 days. The locations of 1269 game kill sites within a hunting zone of 131 km² were documented with trained local investigators and then entered into a geographic information system with associated attribute data for analysis. Results show a heavy concentration of kill sites around the study communities. Nearly 90% of the total harvest by weight was captured within just 2 km of hunters’ homes. Yet, while several species are captured in large numbers close to home, others are caught closer to the outer peripheries of the shared hunting zone, suggesting that some degree of localized depletion may have occurred. The findings demonstrate the value of mapping the boundaries of hunting zones and game kill sites to assess the impacts of hunting on game species in tropical and other ecosystems and to provide an empirical basis for delimiting conservation zones that balance the use and protection of wildlife in tropical forest regions.     

A conservation success story in the otherwise dire megafauna extinction crisis: The Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica) of Gir forest

Carnivores in Asia and throughout the world face high risk of extinction due to factors such as continued habitat loss and hunting. However, the Asiatic lion of Gir forest, India presents a conservation success story whose history may help to guide the recovery and conservation of other imperiled predators. Protection of core and satellite habitats and the relocation of pastoral communities and their livestock triggered forest recovery and coincident increases in native prey populations. Wild ungulate populations increased by 10-fold between 1970 and 2010, supporting an increase in the lion population from 180 animals in 1974 to 411 animals in 2010. Coincident with this increase, lions shifted their predation preferences from a diet composed of 75% livestock to one composed of just 25% livestock. This example demonstrates the value of native prey populations to sustain imperiled carnivore species, and the use of protected areas and livestock exclusion to maintain healthy prey populations.     

Foraging in the fallows: Hunting patterns across a successional continuum in the Peruvian Amazon

Studies comparing hunting between secondary and mature forests are critical to understanding secondary forests’ potential as sustainable hunting grounds. I examined hunting across a successional continuum by surveying 67 households in three communities near the Cordillera Azul National Park, Peru, and analyzing the potential for sustainable hunting. Ninety-nine percent of households surveyed went hunting during the six-month study. Ninety-one species were recorded from seven vertebrate and invertebrate classes, with mammals the most hunted. Five percent of extraction events were species of concern on IUCN’s Red List. Households extracted significantly more, in terms of number of species, number of collection events, and biomass, from older forests (>20 y) than from young secondary (1-5 y) or old secondary forests (5-20 y). However, when extraction is measured per unit area (kg/km² or collection events/km²), households extracted more wildlife from old secondary forest. Households consumed meat at rates below Amazon regional averages. However, because human population densities are well above carrying capacity, current low harvest rates are likely a relic of past overharvests and do not reflect sustainability. Even if management focuses on source-sink dynamics with buffer zone hunting resupplied by protected area populations, long-term sustainability seems doubtful. As more agricultural clearing converts older forests to fields and fallows, the role of secondary forests in resource management plans will increase. The impact of high human population densities in the region means conservation and development programs should focus more on supplying alternative sources of protein and income and limiting immigration into the area.     

Integrating occupancy modeling and interview data for corridor identification: A case study for jaguars in Nicaragua

Corridors are critical elements in the long-term conservation of wide-ranging species like the jaguar (Panthera onca). Jaguar corridors across the range of the species were initially identified using a GIS-based least-cost corridor model. However, due to inherent errors in remotely sensed data and model uncertainties, these corridors warrant field verification before conservation efforts can begin. We developed a novel corridor assessment protocol based on interview data and site occupancy modeling. We divided our pilot study area, in southeastern Nicaragua, into 71, 6 × 6 km sampling units and conducted 160 structured interviews with local residents. Interviews were designed to collect data on jaguar and seven prey species so that detection/non-detection matrices could be constructed for each sampling unit. Jaguars were reportedly detected in 57% of the sampling units and had a detection probability of 28%. With the exception of white-lipped peccary, prey species were reportedly detected in 82–100% of the sampling units. Though the use of interview data may violate some assumptions of the occupancy modeling approach for determining ‘proportion of area occupied’, we countered these shortcomings through study design and interpreting the occupancy parameter, psi, as ‘probability of habitat used’. Probability of habitat use was modeled for each target species using single state or multistate models. A combination of the estimated probabilities of habitat use for jaguar and prey was selected to identify the final jaguar corridor. This protocol provides an efficient field methodology for identifying corridors for easily-identifiable species, across large study areas comprised of unprotected, private lands.     

Improving density estimates for elusive carnivores: Accounting for sex-specific detection and movements using spatial capture–recapture models for jaguars in central Brazil

Owing to habitat conversion and conflict with humans, many carnivores are of conservation concern. Because of their elusive nature, camera trapping is a standard tool for studying carnivores. In many vertebrates, sex-specific differences in movements – and therefore detection by cameras – are likely. We used camera trapping data and spatially explicit sex-specific capture–recapture models to estimate jaguar density in Emas National Park in the central Brazilian Cerrado grassland, an ecological hotspot of international importance. Our spatially explicit model considered differences in movements and trap encounter rate between genders and the location of camera traps (on/off road). We compared results with estimates from a sex-specific non-spatial capture–recapture model. The spatial model estimated a density of 0.29 jaguars 100 km⁻² and showed that males moved larger distances and had higher trap encounter rates than females. Encounter rates with off-road traps were one tenth of those for on-road traps. In the non-spatial model, males had a higher capture probability than females; density was estimated at 0.62 individuals 100 km⁻². The non-spatial model likely overestimated density because it did not adequately account for animal movements. The spatial model probably underestimated density because it assumed a uniform distribution of jaguars within and outside the reserve. Overall, the spatial model is preferable because it explicitly considers animal movements and allows incorporating site-specific and individual covariates. With both methods, jaguar density was lower than reported from most other study sites. For rare species such as grassland jaguars, spatially explicit capture–recapture models present an important advance for informed conservation planning.     

Animal breeding systems and big game hunting: Models and application

We apply an age- and stage-structured model incorporating varying harem sizes, paternal care and infanticide to examine the effect of hunting on sustainability of populations. Compared to standard carnivore and herbivore models, these models produce different outcomes for sustainable offtake when either adults, or adult males are harvested. Larger harem size increases sustainable offtake whereas paternal care and infanticide lowers it. Where males are monogamous, populations are vulnerable to male offtake, regardless of paternal care. Surprisingly, an incidental take of 10% of other age-sex-classes has very little effect on these findings. Indiscriminate (subsistence) hunting of all age-sex classes has a dramatic effect on certain populations. Applying these behavior-sensitive models to tourist hunting in the Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania, we find that across the Reserve hunting quotas were generally set at sustainable rates except for leopard (Panthera pardus). In certain hunting blocks within the Reserve, however, quotas for eland (Taurotragus oryx), hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), lion (Panthera leo), reedbuck (Redunca arundinum), sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus) and waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) are set at unsustainably high rates. Moreover, particular blocks are consistently awarded high quotas. Behaviorally sensitive models refine predictions for population viability, specify data required to make predictions robust, and demonstrate the necessity of incorporating behavioral ecological knowledge in conservation and management.     

Habitat use and spatial dynamics of takhi introduced to Hustai National Park, Mongolia

The successful introduction of captive bred takhi or Przewalski’s horse, Equus ferus przewalskii, into Mongolia in the 1990s is a good example of the benefits of ex situ conservation and one of the few examples of the recovery of an animal after it became extinct in the wild. This is also particularly interesting because virtually nothing was known about how takhi lived before they died out, and the introductions have enabled us to study how they have settled, and their ecology and behaviour within their former natural range. In this paper, we describe the movement, home range size and shape, and habitat use of takhi at one of the release areas, the 570 km² Hustai National Park in Mongolia. Harem home ranges varied between 129 and 2399 ha, with 80% core areas of between 61 and 1196 ha. There was no relationship between range size and harem size, or length of time since release. Initially, harems stayed near their release enclosures, but over time they established home ranges further away. There was little overlap between home ranges of different harems, but neither was there evidence of exclusive range use. The more nutritious vegetation at lower elevations was preferentially selected. Thus the present situation looks good, but, as the population continues to grow, we anticipate that there will be potential problems related to intraspecific competition for water and vegetation resources, and the potential for hybridisation with domestic horses belonging to the local people. We consider the time it may take for takhi to reach carrying capacity within Hustai National Park and emphasise that continual monitoring of the population is essential because interventional management is likely to be required in the future.     

基于不同种类生态安全的土地利用情景模拟

为解决中国城市化进程中日益严峻的生态和环境问题,合理确定未来土地利用结构和布局是关键,开展不同约束条件下的土地利用情景模拟研究对于科学规划和辅助决策具有重要意义。该文首先采用景观安全格局理论构建了曹妃甸新区综合生态安全格局,然后基于GIS和CA-Markov模型,提出了一种基于生态安全格局的土地利用情景模拟方法,并借助于2005年和2013年2期土地利用遥感解译图对曹妃甸新区生态安全格局保护与无生态保护2种土地利用情景下2021年的土地利用结构和布局进行了预测和模拟,结果显示,曹妃甸新区生态安全格局总面积为1 058.80km2,占区域总面积的53.53%,其中底线生态安全格局面积为312.67km2,占区域总面积的15.81%。生态安全格局保护情景下,底线生态安全格局范围内新增建设用地为0,且总生态安全格局范围内新增建设用地比无生态保护情景减少17.47km2。生态安全格局保护情景下,景观更趋于破碎化,景观的形状更趋复杂,建设用地与生态用地的分布更趋合理。该研究方法和结果可为区域城市规划和生态保护提供技术支撑和决策参考。     

Habitat use and spatial behaviour of the endangered Southern river otter (Lontra provocax) in riparian habitats of Chile: Conservation implications

The spatial behaviour of 10 Southern river otters Lontra provocax was analysed using radio-tracking data collected in the Queule River, Southern Chile. The estimated otter density was 0.25 individuals km⁻¹. Females with cubs and adult otters displaying mating behaviours were the only social group recorded. Studied otters were solitary and observed behaviour patterns suggest an intrasexual territoriality. No home range overlap among males existed while an average of 33% and 87% home range overlapped among females and between sexes, respectively. In the situation of core areas, only one case of overlapping between an adult male and an adult female was observed. Average home range and core area lengths were 11.3 km and 0.9 km, respectively. Otters used rivers more frequently than expected, whereas they avoided small streams. Low intensity livestock farming, without canalization of watercourses and riparian vegetation extraction practices, seems compatible with the presence of Southern river otter populations since the spatial behaviour of the studied otters was not affected under these circumstances. Based on the present official reserve sizes and distribution within the country, and also the increase of variant anthropogenic land uses outside these areas that result with consequent habitat loss and deterioration, we strongly recommend considering the importance of spatial dimension in quantity and quality habitats in further conservation planning for the Southern river otter using an integrated catchment management.     

Discriminating between village and commercial hunting of apes

Hunting is the major driver of large mammal decline in Central African forests. In slowly reproducing species even low hunting pressure leaves spatial gradients with wildlife density increasing with distance from transport routes and human settlements. Park management can use this pattern formation to identify sources of threats, but also to discriminate between different threat scenarios, such as the impact of subsistence vs. commercial hunting. We conducted an ape survey in the mountainous Moukalaba Doudou National Park, Gabon, to evaluate whether potential population gradients would emanate from the three human population centers in the region or the villages surrounding the park. Using generalized linear modeling we found hill slope as a good predictor of ape nest occurrence probability and the distance to human population centers a better predictor of ape nest density and ape nest group size than distance to villages. In fact ape nest density was three times lower at the park borders close to the human population centers than in the park’s interior. The results indicate that Moukalaba’s ape population is more impacted by commercial than subsistence hunting and suggest that park management should focus conservation efforts on the human population centers. We conclude that in particular for slowly reproducing species geographic information on wildlife population gradients are of additional value for guiding protected area management. The hunting impact on those species might be easily underestimated, if derived only from market surveys or transport route controls, where they are only rarely found.     

Using occupancy and population models to assess habitat conservation opportunities for an isolated carnivore population

An isolated population of the fisher (Martes pennanti) in the southern Sierra Nevada, California, is threatened by small size and habitat alteration from wildfires, fuels management, and other factors. We assessed the population’s status and conservation options for its habitat using a spatially explicit population model coupled with a fisher probability of occurrence model. The fisher occurrence model was selected from a family of generalized additive models (GAM) generated using numerous environmental variables and fisher detection–nondetection data collected at 228 survey arrays sampled repeatedly during 2002–2006. The selected GAM accounted for 69% of the Akaike weight using total above-ground biomass of trees, latitude-adjusted elevation, and annual precipitation averaged over a 5 km² moving window. We estimated equilibrium population sizes (or carrying capacities) within currently occupied areas, and identified likely population source, sink, and expansion areas, by simulating population processes for 20 years using different demographic rates, dispersal distances, and territory sizes. The population model assumed that demographic parameters of fishers scale in proportion to habitat quality as indexed by the calculated probability of fisher occurrence. Based on the most defensible range of parameter values, we estimate fisher carrying capacity at ∼125–250 adults in currently occupied areas. Population expansion into potential habitat in and north of Yosemite National Park has potential to increase population size, but this potential for expansion is predicted to be highly sensitive to mortality rates, which may be elevated in the northern portion of the occupied range by human influences, including roadkill and diseases carried by domestic cats and dogs.     

Composition and abundance of birds in Andean alder (Alnus acuminata) patches with past and present harvest in Bolivia

We compared species richness and abundance of birds between five patches under selective Alnus exploitation and five patches that have not been harvested for at least 10 years prior to our study, during the early dry season (April-July 2001), in Cotapata National Park. Using “point counts” we recorded birds and their distribution in two (<1.5 m and >1.5 m) forest layers. Simultaneously we evaluated the floristic structure (size [dbh] distribution, basal area, tree density, tree height, and vegetation cover) and composition (diversity) on three transects placed within each Alnus patch. Both bird diversity and vegetation cover were significantly higher in not presently used patches but only for the higher layer of the forest, whereas plant diversity was higher in presently used patches. Lack of differences between the two types of Alnus patches in any of the vegetation parameters measured in the lower layer was coupled with an indistinct avifauna. Small changes in habitat characteristics following a perturbation like selective logging have the potential to affect richness and abundance of birds, at least within the habitats directly affected by the perturbation.     

Altered vegetation structure and composition linked to fire frequency and plant invasion in a biodiverse woodland

Relationships between fire history, vegetation structure and composition, and invasion by introduced plant species have received limited attention in Australian woodlands. A study in a Mediterranean, fire adapted urban Banksia woodland remnant in the biodiversity hotspot of southwest Australia investigated: (1) Have significant changes occurred in the woodland tree canopy between 1963 and 2000? (2) Do correlations exist between fire frequency and canopy cover? (3) If there is a difference in the vegetation composition of Banksia woodland invaded by the South African Ehrharta calycina (PCe) and Pelargonium capitatum (PCp) compared to largely intact remnants (GC)? and (4) Do correlations exist between vegetation condition, composition, fire frequency and invasion? Aerial photography, processed in a Geographical Information System, was used to establish fire history and changes in canopy cover over time (1963–2000). PCe and PCp sites experienced the greatest number of fires, with a net reduction in canopy cover in all areas experiencing four or more fires (60% of all woodlands). Frequent fire corresponded with a decline in native cover, richness and diversity, a shift from native to introduced species, changes in the relative importance of fire response categories, and loss of native resprouting shrub cover. Life forms of introduced species, which included no trees, shrubs and perennial sedges, contrasted strongly with those of native species, which had poor representation of annual and perennial grasses. Clear ecological and conservation consequences due to the loss of species diversity, changes in fire ecology and invasion have occurred in the Banksia woodlands. This study provides an understanding of the invasion process, enhancing conservation knowledge to improve the adaptive management of the key threatening process of invasion in biodiverse communities.     

Land‐use and cover changes (1988–2002) around budongo forest reserve,NW Uganda: implications for forest and woodland sustainability

Land‐use and cover changes around Budongo Forest Reserve (BFR) were analysed from multi‐temporal LandSat images (1988 and 2002) and associated field‐based studies in 2003–2004. Three major land‐use and cover classes: forest/woodland, sugarcane plantations and grassland/shifting‐cultivation/settlements were clearly discriminated. The area under sugarcane cultivation increased over 17‐fold, from 690 ha in 1988 to 12729 ha in 2002, with a concomitant loss of about 4680 ha (8·2 per cent) of forest/woodland, mainly on the southern boundary of BFR. Land‐use and cover changes were a result of (a) agricultural expansion, (b) increasing human population, exacerbated by large influxes of refugees, (c) conflicts of interest and political interference in the management of BFR and (d) unclear land tenure. Agriculture is the main land‐use practice and source of income to local people, with commercial sugarcane and tobacco as the primary cash crops. Individual smallholder sugarcane plantations covered distances ranging from 30 to 1440 m along the BFR edge, with no buffer zone, resulting in direct conflicts between farmers and forest wild animals. There is an ever‐increasing need for more land for agricultural expansion, resulting in continued loss of forest/woodland on private/communal lands and encroachment into BFR. This unsustainable agricultural expansion and the local people's perception of BFR as an obstacle to agriculture, threatens the conservation of its threatened wild plants (e.g. Raphia farinifera) and the endangered chimpanzees. Therefore, their sustainable management for both development and conservation will require strong and incorruptible institutions that will seek a balance between resource exploitation and conservation. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.