Potential of a national monitoring program for forests to assess change in high-latitude ecosystems

Broad-scale monitoring in Alaska has become of increasing interest due to uncertainty about the potential impacts of changing climate on high-latitude ecosystems. The Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program is a national monitoring program for all public and private forestlands in the US, but the program is not currently implemented in the boreal region of Alaska. We provide an overview of the strengths and weaknesses of the FIA system for monitoring the potential impact of climate change on Alaska’s species, communities, and ecosystems. The primary strength of the system is a scientifically rigorous design-based statistical estimation method that produces estimates of forest attributes with known sampling error and quantifiable measurement error. The weaknesses of the system include low power for small area estimates, lack of spatial context and contiguity, and difficulty in inferring causality of factors when changes in monitored attributes are detected.Climate change is expected to impact many components of boreal ecosystems, but for most indicators the direction and magnitude of change are difficult to predict because of complex interactions among system components. Status and trend information provided by FIA monitoring that could be helpful to conservation decisions includes abundance and rarity of vascular plants, invasive species, biomass and carbon content of vegetation, shifting vegetation species distribution, disturbance frequency, type, and impact, and wildlife habitat characteristics. Because of unique factors such as the low level of infrastructure, modifications to the FIA monitoring system used in the conterminous US have been proposed for Alaska. Remote sensing data would play a greater role in meeting monitoring objectives, and sampling intensity of field plots would be reduced. Coordination with other national, regional, and local monitoring efforts provides potential for increased understanding of change in boreal ecosystems at multiple scales.     

Using multi-scale modelling to predict habitat suitability for species of conservation concern: The grey long-eared bat as a case study

Although spatial scale is important for understanding ecological processes and guiding conservation planning, studies combining a range of scales are rare. Habitat suitability modelling has been used traditionally to study broad-scale patterns of species distribution but can also be applied to address conservation needs at finer scales. We studied the ability of presence-only species distribution modelling to predict patterns of habitat selection at broad and fine spatial scales for one of the rarest mammals in the UK, the grey long-eared bat (Plecotus austriacus). Models were constructed with Maxent using broad-scale distribution data from across the UK (excluding Northern Ireland) and fine-scale radio-tracking data from bats at one colony. Fine-scale model predictions were evaluated with radio-tracking locations from bats from a distant colony, and compared with results of traditional radio-tracking data analysis methods (compositional analysis of habitat selection). Broad-scale models indicated that winter temperature, summer precipitation and land cover were the most important variables limiting the distribution of the grey long-eared bat in the UK. Fine-scale models predicted that proximity to unimproved grasslands and distance to suburban areas determine foraging habitat suitability around maternity colonies, while compositional analysis also identified unimproved grasslands as the most preferred foraging habitat type. This strong association with unimproved lowland grasslands highlights the potential importance of changes in agricultural practices in the past century for wildlife conservation. Hence, multi-scale models offer an important tool for identifying conservation requirements at the fine landscape level that can guide national-level conservation management practices.     

Developing programs to monitor ecosystem health and effectiveness of management practices on Lakes States National Forests, USA

Assessing accomplishment of management objectives related to ecosystem health requires monitoring key indicators, including ecological processes and components of biological diversity. For these purposes, a monitoring plan was developed on the Chequamegon National Forest. It was refined by use of public workshops and technical consultation, and later adjusted based on practicality and additional inventory needs. To date, monitoring has focused on plants and birds, including long-term baseline monitoring in both managed forest and more natural areas. Monitoring is done at both the national forest and the ranger district levels, a forest subunit, the latter usually focusing on specific projects rather than forestwide ecosystem health concerns. Examples from the Laurentian ranger district of the Superior National Forest are provided. Future assessments will require qualitative, quantitative and spatial analyses of community, ecosystem, habitat and population trends and patterns, and management effects. An institutionalized program that focuses on key ecosystem components at various scales, and that involves concerned publics and many partners, will be necessary to provide feedback to refine forest management.     

The role of ants in conservation monitoring: If, when, and how

Ants are increasingly being recognized as useful tools for land managers to monitor ecosystem conditions. However, despite an abundance of studies on ant responses to both environmental disturbance and land management techniques, an analysis of the practice and value of including ants in monitoring is lacking. Consequently, conservation managers are left with little guidance as to if, when, and how ants can be used to assess conservation activities. Based on our review of approximately 60 published studies, we outline five areas where ants provide valuable information for management-based monitoring: (1) to detect the presence of invasive species, (2) to detect trends among threatened or endangered species, (3) to detect trends among keystone species, (4) to evaluate land management actions, and (5) to assess long-term ecosystem changes. We also discuss practical considerations when designing a monitoring framework for ants, including appropriate methods, taxonomic resolution for sampling, and spatial and temporal scale. We find that when integrated with management goals, monitoring ants can provide information over the short-term on topics such as the status of invasive or keystone species, as well as over longer time frames, for instance the impact of climate change. Overall, we conclude that ants merit monitoring based on their inherent ecological qualities, independent of any “indicator” attributes they might have.     

Beyond demography and delisting: ecological recovery for Yellowstone's grizzly bears and wolves

This paper addresses the question, when are threatened or endangered species really recovered? The US Endangered Species Act enables the de-listing of species once demographic criteria are met. In the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem, two protected apex carnivores, grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) and wolves (Canis lupus), face removal from federal government protection due to population increases, a point at which they are expected to be integrated components of this ecosystem. We tested the assumption that these two carnivores are playing normative ecological roles in the Yellowstone ecosystem by comparing the extent to which wolves and bears have re-instilled anti-predator responses in a primary prey species, moose (Alces alces), within wolf and bear recovery zones. As a type of control, we contrasted female moose from two areas in Alaska with different predator regimes to those in Wyoming. Populations from mainland Alaska, a region with a relatively intact carnivore assemblage, responded significantly more to odors of both carnivores. In contrast, a basic anti-predator reaction was lacking in Wyoming; and responses to grizzly bear odor only nominally increased after dependent young experienced heightened mortality. Additionally, the level of response among Alaskan moose living under virtual predator-free conditions for 25+ years closely resembled that of conspecifics in Wyoming. That such striking variation in prey responses exists re-enforces critical ecological differences between predator-intact and -defunct systems. Thus, although grizzly bears and wolves in the Yellowstone area will most likely be de-listed within the next few years, whether such action would be ecologically defensible is arguable. At this point in the recovery process, these predators may currently have limited ecological impacts in large portions of this region, at least as gauged by one potentially important prey species, moose. Although our data suggest ecologically incomplete conditions, other indices of carnivore recovery that include responses of other important prey species such as elk (Cervus elaphus), may be more in tune with carnivore activities. We recommend that different types of ecological data available throughout recovery zones be used in consort with demographic criteria to evaluate when endangered carnivores are more fully integrated into their ecosystems. And, in the event of a disparity between these criteria, we also encourage a dialogue focusing on approaches towards bringing ecological conditions in concordance with demographic criteria, irrespective of whether one considers increasing population levels beyond the current target levels required for de-listing,and/or simply, additional time for the recovery process.     

Underestimated and severe: Small mammal decline from the forests of south-eastern Australia since European settlement, as revealed by a top-order predator

In Australia, numerous small mammal species have suffered extinction or severe declines in distribution and abundance following European settlement. The extent of these declines from forested areas of south-eastern Australia, however, remains poorly understood. In this paper we use sub-fossil deposits of the sooty owl (Tyto tenebricosa tenebricosa) as a tool for understanding the diversity of the small mammal palaeocommunity. These results are compared to the contemporary sooty owl diet from the same geographical region to investigate the degree of small mammal decline following European settlement.Of 28 mammal species detected in sub-fossil deposits and considered prey items of the sooty owl at the time of European settlement, only 10 species were detected in the contemporary sooty owl diet. Numerous small mammal species have not only recently suffered severe declines in distribution and abundance but have also recently undergone niche contraction, as they occupied a greater diversity of regions and habitats at the time of European settlement. For some species our understanding of their true ecological niche and ecological potential is therefore limited. The species that underwent the greatest declines occupied open habitat types or were terrestrial. The severity of decline is also likely to have resulted in severe disruption of ecosystem functions, with wide scale ecosystem consequences. There is an urgent need to improve small mammal conservation, to maintain crucial ecosystem functions performed by small mammals. It is recommended that broad-scale exotic predator control programs are conducted which may also provide suitable conditions for the re-introduction of locally extinct species.     

基于MAUP下川滇生态屏障区生态系统服务价值多尺度空间分异及地理探测响应

为探析生态系统服务价值(ESV)在可塑性面积问题(MAUP)下的分区效应,以川滇生态屏障区为例,基于2018年土地利用数据,划分格网、行政区和流域3类不同尺度类型9级评价单元,运用空间自相关分析、地理探测器等方法探究了ESV多尺度空间分异特征及地理探测响应。结果表明：川滇生态屏障区2018年ESV为7 945.81亿元,以林地和草地的贡献最为突出;3类尺度下ESV空间分布具有明显的分区效应,大体呈现出评价单元尺度类间差异性大,类内差异性小的空间分异特征,同时其空间集聚效应及冷热点区空间分布随着评价单元尺度划分大小的不同而差异显著;通过对比分析,将格网尺度与行政区尺度结合分析,可作为大区域生态功能区ESV综合评价的尺度参考;自然因素及社会经济因素的交互协同增强效应共同影响了川滇生态屏障区ESV分异效果,不同尺度下,因子解释力大小不同。综上,评价单元划分的不同会影响评价结果的准确性,结合具体研究需求开展多尺度评价成为未来ESV科学量化的前提条件。     

Diversity and distribution of Victoria Land biota

Understanding the relationship between soil biodiversity and ecosystem functioning is critical to predicting and monitoring the effects of ecosystem changes on important soil processes. However, most of Earth's soils are too biologically diverse to identify each species present and determine their functional role in food webs. The soil ecosystems of Victoria Land (VL) Antarctica are functionally and biotically simple, and serve as in situ models for determining the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem processes. For a few VL taxa (microarthropods, nematodes, algae, mosses and lichens), species diversity has been intensively assessed in highly localized habitats, but little is known of how community assemblages vary across broader spatial scales, or across latitudinal and environmental gradients. The composition of tardigrade, rotifer, protist, fungal and prokaryote communities is emerging. The latter groups are the least studied, but potentially the most diverse. Endemism is highest for microarthropods and nematodes, less so for tardigrades and rotifers, and apparently low for mosses, lichens, protists, fungi and prokaryotes. Much of what is known about VL diversity and distribution occurs in an evolutionary and ecological vacuum; links between taxa and functional role in ecosystems are poorly known and future studies must utilize phylogenetic information to infer patterns of community assembly, speciation, extinction, population processes and biogeography. However, a comprehensive compilation of all the species that participate in soil ecosystem processes, and their distribution across regional and landscape scales is immediately achievable in VL with the resources, tools, and expertise currently available. We suggest that the soil ecosystems of VL should play a major role in exploring the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, and in monitoring the effects of environmental change on soil processes in real time and space.     

生态承载力与生态系统生产总值耦合的生态系统服务评估—以福建省长汀县为例

生态系统质量是区域探索生态优先、绿色发展为导向的高质量发展的重要基础。开展区域生态系统服务评估可获取国土空间生态本底特征,为生态系统保护格局构建提供现状底图,明确生态系统修复重点、国土空间优化提供导向。以长汀县为例,基于地区生态典型性、区域生物量差异及公众支付意愿与能力构建特色评价指标,采用生态承载力与生态系统生产总值耦合研究方法,对长汀县生态系统服务进行县域、镇域、村域及系统斑块等多尺度评估。结果表明:长汀县生态系统服务等级空间分布符合区划规律,大致呈中间低、四周高的特征;尺度细化使结果分布异质性更强,可为开展生态修复、空间优化提供更具针对性的建议;长汀县生态系统较为脆弱,低生态等级乡镇个数占比高达38.89%,影响因素多样,水土流失及森林覆盖率影响显著;地形地势、人类活动、政策实施影响生态承载力的空间分布,地势平坦的人口稠密区系生态承载力低值集中区;森林生态系统在生态系统生产总值评估中扮演重要角色,生态系统生产总值均值等级极高的4个乡镇,其森林生态系统面积皆占89%以上。通过对生态承载力与生态系统生产总值耦合的方法进行探究,有利于推进"两山"理论的应用实践,将为地区生态系统服务提升与空间发展提供参考建议。     

气候变暖对陆地生态系统的影响

人类活动引起的温室效应导致全球气候变暖,气候变暖对全球生态环境的影响越来越受到人们的关注.作为人类赖以生存的环境主体,陆地生态系统对气候变暖将做出何种响应,更是人们关注的重点.植物物候的变化可以直观地反映某些气候变化,尤其是气候变暖.气候变暖影响植物的生长节律,进而引起植物与环境关系的改变及生态系统物质循环(如水和碳的循环)的改变.不同种类植物对气候变化的差异响应,会使植物间和动植物间的竞争与依赖关系发生深刻的变化,如北半球中高纬度地区植被生长季延长、植物提早开花、昆虫提早出现、鸟类提早产蛋以及冰川退缩、永冻土带融化、江河湖泊结冰推迟而融化提早等.本文主要从陆地生态系统的分布和演替两方面着眼,以植物和动物作为考察对象,系统论述了森林、草原、荒漠、湿地及农田等陆地生态系统在气候变暖背景下产生的变化,并从微观和宏观尺度上提出陆地生态系统变化的生态学机制,最后在技术和政策层面给出若干对策.     

陆地生态系统稳定性空间格局及影响机制研究综述

稳定性是生态系统保持或恢复自身结构和功能的能力,是维持生态系统服务功能的关键。近年来全球植被稳定性面临重大威胁,生态系统稳定性的研究逐步成为生态学的热点问题。本文综述了稳定性的定义、空间格局及其影响机制,指出了当前研究存在的问题,并对未来发展提出展望。目前研究发现,生态系统稳定性是一个多维结构,主要包括抵抗力、恢复力和时间稳定性三个方面。稳定性及其影响机制具有很强的空间异质性与尺度依赖性,主要表现为在站点尺度由生物多样性等生物因素控制,而在区域及全球尺度则由温度、降水、辐射等非生物因素控制。目前植被稳定性的研究中尚存在数据源噪声难以去除,量化方法未标准化等问题。未来稳定性的研究可逐步由站点等局部尺度向区域、大陆等全局尺度扩展,并形成标准化的稳定性评估方法。     

黄河流域城镇化与生态系统服务的时空互动关系

黄河流域是中国重要的生态廊道,黄河流域的生态安全关系着全国的生态安全水平。理清城镇化与生态系统服务之间的空间互动关系是黄河流域可持续发展的基础。通过分析2000-2018年黄河流域城镇化发展特征以及生态系统服务的空间分布格局,利用Pearson相关系数和双变量空间自相关方法进一步揭示了黄河流域城镇化和生态系统服务的时空作用关系及演变特征。结果表明:(1)2000-2018年黄河流域城镇化水平整体提升,综合城镇化指数增长了102.60%,经济城镇化发展速度普遍高于土地城镇化和人口城镇化,城镇化水平具有显著的空间差异性;(2)2000-2018年黄河流域粮食生产、固碳和土壤保持分别增长了65.32%,59.47%和46.27%,而产水服务减少了21.15%;(3)黄河流域城镇化与生态系统服务之间的关系在时空尺度上表现出了正向效应的减弱和负向效应的增强,并且城镇化和生态系统服务发展不协调的区域在不断扩张。     

矿区生态监测的地理加权遥感生态指数构建及评价

矿区生态是陆地生态系统的重要组成部分,准确监测矿区生态对保护生态环境、维持生态平衡具有重要意义。遥感技术为矿区生态监测提供了有效手段,针对遥感生态指数（remote sensing ecological index,RSEI）在矿区生态监测中存在监测精度低、针对性弱和指标权重空间上均一化问题,该研究对RSEI进行了改进。首先,考虑矿区特殊的生态成因,在绿度、热度、湿度、干度的基础上加入煤尘污染因子构成矿区遥感生态指数;然后,利用地理加权主成分分析法确定各指标的空间权重,构建了地理加权遥感生态指数（geographically weighted-remote sensing ecological index,GW-RSEI）;最后,以山西省大同煤田为例,基于多期遥感影像对GW-RSEI在矿区生态监测中的有效性、适用性进行了验证。结果表明：GW-RSEI能准确捕捉矿区大气中的煤尘污染,从整体和局部尺度实现了矿区生态的精准监测,有效提高了矿区生态监测的精度;地理加权主成分分析法能够明确表征矿区生态的空间异质性和生态环境变化的空间连续性;2000—2020年大同煤田的GW-RSEI均值分别为0.51、0.48、0.46、0.59、0.56,整体生态环境经历了先恶化后改善的过程,其东南部生态环境变化趋势与整体一致,而西北部生态环境呈现先改善后恶化的变化趋势。研究成果为准确监测矿区生态提供了一种更加科学、有效的方法。     

Challenging conservation of migratory species: Sahelian rainfalls drive first-year survival of the vulnerable Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni

In the context of attested global changes, accurate estimation of whether climatic fluctuations impact on population demographic parameters is needed for adequate management, especially for migratory species. We present a capture-recapture analysis linking survival rates of the vulnerable Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni) to annual rainfalls in the Sahel region, considered as a proxy of climatic conditions on wintering grounds. Recapture data were obtained from field observations of individuals ringed and sexed as juveniles over a 14-year monitoring period (1994-2007). We addressed a common but problematic situation in birds where: (i) sex is known with certainty for first-summer or older birds but only suspected for juveniles, and (ii) a large proportion of individuals never return to the study population (e.g. transient behavior). Transient behavior and unknown sexes were explicitly integrated considering a two age class in a multistate capture-recapture model. Survival was time-varying for juveniles (geometric mean: 0.499 ± 0.021) but constant - and higher - for adults (0.718 ± 0.013). Yearling survival probabilities were strongly correlated with rainfalls in the Sahel, suggesting a high dependence of juvenile upon the wintering conditions. While taking sex uncertainty into account, we detected no sex-dependence in survival. Incorporating the sensitivity of survival of wintering migratory birds to climatic variables such as precipitations in arid Sahelian ecosystem may allow to model conservation scenarios with a greater realism. Finally, we encourage the development of international management strategies for migratory species on wintering areas in addition to the existing conservation actions on summering Mediterranean grounds.     

石林喀斯特岩溶区生态系统服务时空演变及权衡协同关系

喀斯特岩溶区是地球上最脆弱的自然生态系统之一,探明生态系统服务时空变化及权衡与协同关系,对区域生态治理决策和增进民生福祉具有重要意义。基于当量因子法、相关系数及空间自相关等方法,定量分析了2000—2020年石林生态系统服务的时空演变及权衡与协同关系。结果表明：(1)石林生态系统服务价值由2000年的20.47亿元持续增长至2020年的21.82亿元,增幅为6.60%,生态系统服务空间分布格局较为稳定,高等级区主要分布在水域地区以及植被覆盖较高的丘陵山区,低等级区集中分布在建设用地相对集中和岩溶石漠化严重的区域;(2)各土地利用类型生态系统服务价值敏感性指数均小于1,表明石林生态系统服务价值对修订后的生态服务价值系数缺乏弹性,研究结果可信;(3)研究期内,协同关系是石林生态系统服务的主导关系,协同率为68.60%,权衡关系主要存在于食物生产、维持养分循环与其他子系统关系中,权衡率达29.75%;(4)数量上,4种生态系统服务类型均存在显著的空间正向自相关,空间上,不同生态系统服务对权衡与协同关系异质性显著。研究结果可为石林优化国土空间格局及生态保护与修复提供参考依据。     

Magnitude of Species Diversity Effect on Aboveground Plant Biomass Increases Through Successional Time of Abandoned Farmlands on the Eastern Tibetan Plateau of China

Recent empirical and theoretical studies have shown that magnitude and direction of biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning can shifts over time. Here, we used species richness and plant abundance (total individual plant stem density) as proxies for species diversity and aboveground biomass for productivity. We used an analytical approach combining both chronosequence and 6 year of vegetation monitoring in a subalpine ecosystem as a model system to assess temporal species richness–abundance–aboveground biomass relationships at different successional stages and spatial scales. We observed that both species richness and plant aboveground biomass increased rapidly early in succession after land abandonment, then after 10 years of abandonment reached a steady state. We found that the relationship between species richness and plant abundance with aboveground biomass was strengthening over successional time. In all successional stages, species richness had stronger positive effects as compared with plant abundance on plant aboveground biomass. Species richness was linearly correlated with aboveground biomass, whereas plant abundance showed a humped‐back relationship with aboveground biomass across all successional stages. Our results showed an increase in the effect of plant diversity over time, and a combination of both plant species richness and abundance is correlated with plant productivity throughout successional time, knowledge that maybe important to managing ecological restoration and conservation. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于土地利用转型的广西边境地区生态服务功能交叉敏感性分析

为揭示边境地区土地利用转型对生态服务功能的影响,推动区域生态环境与社会经济高质量发展。基于广西边境地区2000年、2010年、2018年3期土地利用遥感监测数据,识别18年间土地利用转型和生态系统服务价值的动态演变过程,结合改进的交叉敏感性系数探讨了广西边境地区生态系统服务价值对土地利用转型的敏感性程度。结果表明:(1)2000—2018年广西边境地区土地转型前期平缓,后期剧烈,耕地向建设用地、水域的转移是主要的转型驱动因素;(2)2000—2018年ESV呈现出先增后减的态势,地均ESV高值主要集中于防城区、宁明县南部以及那坡县南部生态环境本底优越的一带,地均ESV低值出现在宁明县北部、龙州县、大新县以及靖西市的中心城区生态系统较为薄弱的岩溶地区;(3)耕地、林地、水域与其他地类相互转型对生态系统服务功能影响较为敏感,其中最敏感的是林地与建设用地的转型,草地、未利用地与其他地类的转型缺乏敏感性。(4)生态敏感性空间演化分异特征显著,耕地与建设用地高生态敏感性重点分布在东兴市、宁明县、龙州县、靖西市,林地与建设用地高生态敏感区主要分布在防城区和东兴市主城区、凭祥市以及靖西市北部等重要的贸易出口通道。研究结果可为优化边境国土空间格局,实现生态服务功能的提升提供科学指引。     

A history of hubris – Cautionary lessons in ecologically sustainable forest management

Logging is one of the most important forms of native-forest exploitation and can have substantial impacts on biodiversity and key ecosystem services. Here we briefly contrast logging operations in temperate and tropical forests and then highlight several challenges for understanding the ecological impacts of logging. We argue that many logging studies are conducted at small spatial scales or over inadequate time periods, and are biased against finding significant negative impacts. This is because of confounding environmental differences between logged and unlogged forests as well as the prolonged nature of forest stand development. Human perceptions of logging also can be biased by the ‘shifting baseline’ phenomenon, and by an incorrect perception that logging operations approximate natural disturbance regimes. We argue that the ecological impacts of logging can be more challenging to detect than is often appreciated, and that forest managers and decision-makers should be cautious when weighing the arguments of pro-logging lobbies.     

西北生态脆弱区省域国土空间生态修复分区

在生态文明建设背景下的国土空间治理时代,国土空间生态修复是优化国土空间结构、提升国土空间功能的重要举措。针对西北生态脆弱区省域国土空间生态修复分区的理论创新与实践需求,该研究以县(区)为基本研究单元,将生态系统服务供需分析与国土空间生态修复分区结合起来,探索基于生态系统服务供需匹配程度差异的西北生态脆弱区省域国土空间生态修复分区思路与方法。对甘肃省的案例研究结果表明:1)除食物供给服务外,全省县域水源涵养服务、固碳释氧服务和土壤保持服务的总供给均大于总需求,但供给与需求存在明显的空间不匹配问题。2)甘肃省存在"高供高需""高供低需""低供高需"和"低供低需"4种供需匹配类型,但各项生态服务的主导供需匹配类型主要以"高供低需"和"低供低需"为主。3)依据区域生态系统服务供需差异及供需匹配类型,将甘肃省划分为绿洲保育、固碳提升、水源涵养和土壤保持4个生态修复大区,并按照自然地理特征与区域生态环境问题将4个大区划分为10个亚区,同时提出不同区域相应的生态保护修复工程措施。     

Small mammals in agricultural landscapes: Opposing responses to farming practices and landscape complexity

Organic farming often counteracts the decline of various taxa owing to agricultural intensification, but little is known about the relative importance of local management and landscape context for small mammals. We examined the abundance, species richness and diversity of small mammal communities in 22 organically and conventionally managed winter wheat fields pairwise located along a gradient of landscape structural complexity (41–94% arable land). Complex landscapes significantly increased small mammal abundance and (with marginal significance) species richness and diversity, but only in conventional fields, whereas organic farming increased small mammals in simple landscapes. These results indicate the importance of landscape complexity for small mammal populations in an intensified agriculture. Analyses at multiple spatial scales (100 m, 250 m, 500 m radii around focal fields), showed opposing responses of the three most abundant species to landscape complexity. Apodemus agrarius PALLAS abundance increased with increasing landscape complexity at a spatial scale of 100 m, whereas Microtus arvalis PALLAS and Sorex araneus L. abundances decreased with increasing landscape complexity at spatial scales of 100 m and 500 m, respectively, suggesting species-specific ecological needs as well as functional spatial scales for conservation management. In conclusion, agri-environmental measures for small mammals such as organic farming are most effective in simple landscapes, while complex landscapes presumably function as source habitats and can compensate for local agricultural intensification in conventional fields.