Long-term responses of ecosystem components to stand thinning in young lodgepole pine forest: IV. Relative habitat use by mammalian herbivores

Pre-commercial thinning (PCT) is a silvicultural practice that can provide diverse understory and overstory vegetation conditions. We tested the hypothesis that relative habitat use by snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), and moose (Alces alces) would increase in response to enhanced abundance of herbs and shrubs, and species diversity and structural diversity of conifers, in heavily thinned (≤1000 stems/ha) stands, at 12–15 years post-thinning. Replicate study areas were located near Penticton, Kamloops, and Prince George in south-central British Columbia, Canada. Each study area had three young pine stands thinned to densities of 500 stems/ha (low), 1000 stems/ha (medium), and 2000 stems/ha (high), with an unthinned young pine and old-growth pine stand for comparison.

Relative habitat use, based on counts of fecal pellets and pellet-groups, was similar among the five treatment stands for hares (P = 0.24), deer (P = 0.23), and moose (P = 0.16). However, low-density stands (500 stems/ha) had ca. 3–20 times as many deer pellet-groups, and ca. 2–4 times as many moose pellet-groups, than other stands. Low-density stands had significantly greater canopy openness, volume of shrubs <2 m, and horizontal hiding cover <1.6 m than other treatments. Relative habitat use by deer and moose was positively related to understory characteristics such as enhanced abundance of forage and security cover. These results support our hypothesis that deer and moose responded positively to enhanced volume of herbs and shrubs as well as to species diversity and structural diversity of conifers and overall vegetation in heavily thinned (≤1000 stems/ha) stands at 12–15 years post-thinning. Our results suggest that ungulate management would be enhanced if greater emphasis was placed on forage enhancement throughout the year, which differs from current management recommendations which tend to focus on winter range and snow-interception cover.     

Influence of fire and mountain pine beetle on the dynamics of lodgepole pine stands in British Columbia,Canada

An outbreak of the mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins; MPB), currently affecting over 10.1 million hectares of lodgepole pine forests (Pinus contorta Dougl.) in British Columbia, Canada, is the largest in recorded history. We examined the dynamics of even-aged lodgepole pine forests in southern British Columbia, which were undergoing this MPB outbreak. Using dendroecology and forest measurements we reconstructed the stand processes of stand initiation, stand disturbances, tree mortality, and regeneration, and explained the current stand structure and the potential MPB impacts in selected stands. Our results indicate that stand-replacing fires initiated even-aged seral lodgepole pine stands in this region. In the absence of fire in the 20th century, multiple MPB disturbances, which each resulted in partial canopy removal, modified the simple one-layer structure of the fire-origin stands by the initiation of post-MPB disturbance regeneration layers, transforming the stands into complex, multi-aged stands. Despite high overstory mortality due to the current MPB outbreak, regeneration layers, which are likely to survive the current outbreak, will provide important ecological legacies and will contribute to mid-term timber supply.     

Effects of feathermoss removal, thinning and fertilization on lodgepole pine growth, soil microclimate and stand nitrogen dynamics

The influence of a continuous feathermoss layer (dominated by Pleurozium schreberi) on soil temperature, soil water potential and tree growth was assessed in a 5-year study. The feathermoss layer was manually removed from 900 m² plots in lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) stands of northwestern Alberta. The interception and retention of nutrients by moss was estimated in N fertilization treatments with and without moss removal. As well, the potential for intraspecific competition to affect nutrient dynamics was assessed through a thinning treatment. Removal of the moss layer increased soil temperatures in summer and increased the period when soil was frost free, but the plots without moss had soil temperature as low as −13 °C in one winter period with little snow cover. Moss removal did not significantly affect N concentrations of the tree foliage but did reduce needle weight. Thinning had little effect on the rate of diameter growth after the first 3 years, but produced a significant increase in growth by year 4. Fertilization had a consistently positive effect on radial stem increments and N content of foliage, regardless of the presence of moss on the plot. Overall, the intraspecific competition between trees was apparently greater than interspecific competition between moss and trees.     

STUDY ON THE TREE GROWTH, ARCHITECTURE AND STAND STRUCTURE OF KOREAN PINE PLANTATION

lNTRODUCTIONTherhythInofKorcanpinegrowingandtrpearchitectUreissubjectedtoitsownl1crcd-ityandforeststructUre.Tl1cil11portantefTcctsofgapdynamicsarethereasonsthatmaketl1cKoreanpinetrceformhighqualityoftimbcr.Whilecurrentn1anagemcntofKoreanpincforestmainlyfocusesonpurestand,thccco-logicalrelationshipsbetWcenKoreanpineandothcrsPecicsinaconununityareneglected,thcprimitivebiologicalconditionislost.TheKo-reanpinetrecsinplantationcasilydivergeonthctOpofmainsten1,thesescverelyaITectthcgrOedqu…     

Comparison of potential non-timber forest products in intensively managed young stands and mature/old-growth forests in south-central British Columbia

Development of understory vegetation has been influenced by the many densely stocked second-growth forest stands in North America, which have an extended stem exclusion successional stage. Understory composition and structure is important for ecosystem functioning, while also having social and economic value through the harvest of certain herb and shrub species. The potential for co-management of young and mature, managed and unmanaged stands for timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) was assessed in two separate replicated experiments. Experiment A examined pole-sized lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) stands that had been pre-commercially thinned (PCT) to target densities of 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 stems/ha. Half of each of these four thinning units was repeatedly fertilized, resulting in eight experimental units. Experiment B examined six different stand types: young plantations, pole-sized lodgepole pine stands either PCT, PCT plus repeated fertilization, or unthinned, mature, and old growth. Fifty-four herb and shrub species were identified as potential NTFPs, with the responses of individual species, as well as mean total herb, shrub, berry-producing and overall total NTFPs being assessed. In Experiment A, mean total abundance (crown volume index) of NTFPs, as well as mean total herb NTFPs were significantly greater in fertilized than in unfertilized stands. Thinning treatments did not significantly affect NTFP volume, however, fertilization treatments produced five significant responses by individual species (Achillea millefolium, Epilobium angustifolium, Taraxacum officinale, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Rubus idaeus). In Experiment B, four of the six species responses that were significant had greater abundance in young, managed stands (young plantation, thinned, or thinned-fertilized) than in the unmanaged stands. Mean total NTFP volume and mean total herb NTFP volume also followed this pattern. A. uva-ursi, E. angustifolium, Lonicera involucrata, Sorbus sitchensis and Thalictrum occidentale all had significantly higher abundance in young, managed stands than in all other treatments. Results suggest that co-management for timber and NTFPs is possible in this ecosystem, with further research needed to evaluate livelihood values of these crops.     

间伐强度对兴安落叶松林林下植被多样性及生物量的影响

研究了间伐强度对兴安落叶松林林下植物多样性和生物量的影响,为确定兴安落叶松林分的最佳采伐强度提供理论依据。以兴安落叶松林为研究对象,设置4种间伐强度(10%、20%、30%、40%)和对照的试验固定样地,对间伐5 a后各样地林下灌草多样性和生物量进行调查分析。结果表明:1)抚育间伐可以明显提高林下植物种类、Menhinick丰富度指数、Simpson指数、Shannon-Wiener指数和Pielou均匀度指数,各层均以40%间伐强度最大,而生态优势度指数则呈递减趋势(P <0.05);2)适当加大间伐强度对林分林下植被层和枯落物层生物量具有促进作用,均以间伐强度30%为优(P <0.05);3)综上所述,在30%～40%的间伐强度下,兴安落叶松林林下植被多样性和生物量最高,林分质量最佳。     

香港郊野公园森林群落结构和物种多样性

通过香港大榄郊野公园森林群落的样地调查,利用物种的丰富度、多样性指数和均匀度指数对群落的类型、结构和物种多样性进行了分析和研究。结果显示了7个主要的森林群落的物种多样性和群落结构的关系,森林群落的物种多样性顺序为:土沉香群落>台湾相思群落>红胶木群落>木荷群落>毛叶桉群落>湿地松+鸭脚木群落>柠檬桉群落。森林群落的乔、灌、草3个层次的丰富度和多样性指数普遍以灌木层最高,均匀度指数则以乔木层最高。而影响物种多样性的因素主要为造林技术和频繁的山火。       

Influence of fire intensity on structure and composition of jack pine stands in the boreal forest of Quebec: Live trees,understory vegetation and dead wood dynamics

North American jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) stands are generally characterized by an even-aged structure resulting from high intensity fires (HIF). However, non-lethal fires of moderate intensity (MIF), which leave behind surviving trees, have also been reported. The objectives of this study were two-fold: (1) assess the concurrent dynamics of live trees, understory vegetation and different types of coarse woody debris (CWD) during succession after HIF; and (2) document how MIF affects stand structure component dynamics compared to HIF. Stands affected by both HIF and MIF were selected. Tree characteristics and age structure, understory biomass, and CWD volume were assessed. Our results suggest that the structural succession of jack pine stands following HIF comprises three stages: young stands (<48 years), premature and mature stands (58–100 years) and old stands (>118 years). Canopy openness and jack pine density significantly decreased with time since HIF, while black spruce density and CWD volume significantly increased. The highest structural diversity was measured in the premature and mature stands. Compared to HIF, MIF increased mean jack pine basal area, decreased average stand density, delayed the replacement of jack pine by black spruce replacement in the canopy, decreased CWD volume, and significantly increased bryophytes mass. MIF increased the diversity of live trees and generally decreased CWD structural diversity. The study confirms the diversity of natural disturbance magnitude and successional processes thereby initiated. Thereafter, it appeared to be relevant for adjustment of disturbance emulating forest-management systems.     

土壤水分梯度对阔叶红松林结构的影响

2002年8月,在吉林省白河林业局红石林场(12755E,4230N),沿着一个山坡设置了一个长宽为112m8m、包含14个样方的样带。调查了群落结构、0-10cm和10-20cm的土壤含水量、枯落物现存量及其C、N、P含量,主要树种的叶片和枝条的C、N、P含量。沿着山坡的不同位置土壤含水量的不同导致阔叶红松林的群落结构发生变化。蒙古栎的比例随着土壤含水量的下降而逐渐升高,而其他主要阔叶树种则逐渐减少乃至消失。枯落物的水分变化趋势与土壤一致。在不同坡位枯落物的分解状况不同,干重差异显著。坡下枯落物含量较坡上的丰富,部分原因在于群落结构的变化。水分和养分含量的变化影响了枯落物的成分、降解及其养分的释放,进一步影响了林木的生长速度和林分结构并最终影响整个生态系统。图7表2参14。     

Effects of mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins) infestations on forest stand structure in the southern Canadian Rocky Mountains

Forests in the montane and lower subalpine ecoregions of the southern Canadian Rocky Mountains may have been more open and structurally diverse at the beginning of the 20th Century than today. Today, the area of mature Pinus contorta subsp. latifolia Dougl. forest that is conducive to mountain pine beetle (MPB, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins) infestations, infrequent high severity fires, and herbivory appears to have increased in Banff and Kootenay National Parks. Based on a review of the literature, we hypothesised that MPB infestations increase forest stand structural diversity and tree species diversity. Stand structure parameters were investigated in mesic montane and lower subalpine stands approximately 15, 25, and 65 years after MPB outbreaks. Parameters measured were stand density (number of trees per ha), diameter at breast height, height class, species, age class distribution, and coarse woody debris mass. Influences of fire frequency, time since fire, and fire severity on these parameters were assessed to determine whether fire history had a confounding influence on stand structure. The Shannon–Wiener index indicated higher stand structural diversity 15 years but not 25 and 65 years after MPB infestations. MPB infestations led to general decreases within stands in the number of living trees, small diameter snags, and Pinus tree species and an increase within stands in the number of large diameter snags. Management that allows the occurrence of the natural fire regime of variable severity fires, in addition to some MPB infestations, would provide for more open and diverse stands. MPB infestations have some effects on stand structure that are similar to those of fire. Changes in stand structure resulting from recent declines in burning rates within Banff and Kootenay National Parks can be reversed to some extent by MPB infestations.     

Effects of thinning on plant species diversity and composition of understory herbs in a larch plantation

The effects of thinning on plant species diversity and composition of understory herbs in a larch plantation were investigated. The relationships between plant species diversity and composition of understory herbs and light conditions were established. Twenty-five 1 m × 1 m plots and fifteen 13 m × 1 m transects were set up in unthinned and thinned stands, respectively. All the transects in the thinned stands were set across the thinned rows and unthinned rows, and each of them was divided into nine 1 m × 1 m sub-plots. The herb diversity and light conditions were observed in each plot and sub-plot. The results show that there was a significant difference in herb diversity between the thinned and unthinned stands. All biodiversity indices except for evenness index in the thinned stand were higher than those of the unthinned stand, i.e., the herb diversity increased after thinning. According to the changes in herb densities and whether one species could be found in a stand or not before and after thinning, all herb species were classed into three types: positive, neutral and negative species, which referred to a species newly appeared and having an obviously increased density after thinning, with no obvious changes in its appearance and density after thinning, and disappeared and having an obviously decreased density after thinning, respectively. Many new species were found in the thinned stand like Corydalis pallida, Prenanthes tatarinowii, Vicia unijuga and Sonchus brachyotus etc. However, most species found in both the thinned and unthinned stands were negative species. In all nine subplots, only 11 and 10 species were found in spring and in autumn respectively, accounting for 17.74% and 15.15% of all the species in the thinned stand, respectively. All biodiversity indices were the highest in the center sub-plots and most of them tended to reduce from middle to side sub-plots. There was a close correlation between most of the three types of species and light conditions which was similar to each other in the thinned and unthinned stands. __________ Translated from Chinese Journal of Ecology, 2006, 25(10): 1201–1207 [译自: 生态学杂志]     

不同间伐强度对长白落叶松-红松林植物多样性和土壤特性的影响

为了提高长白落叶松-红松林的生产力和生物多样性,2005年秋对长白落叶松人工林进行疏伐,伐后林冠下栽植4年生红松。2012年秋又对上层长白落叶松进行生长伐,设计轻度、中度和强度3种间伐强度和1组未间伐林分(对照),分析5年后不同间伐强度对林下植物多样性和土壤理化性质的影响。结果表明:①抚育间伐能提高林下植物多样性,林下灌木层植物丰富度随着间伐强度的增加而增加,轻度、中度和强度间伐差异显著(p<0.05)。林下灌木层植物多样性指数随着间伐强度的增加而增加,对照与中度间伐、强度间伐差异显著(p<0.05),但中度间伐和强度间伐差异不显著。林下草本层植物的丰富度和多样性指数随着间伐强度的增加而增加,各间伐强度均与对照差异显著(p<0.05),但轻度间伐和中度间伐差异不显著。②适度抚育间伐能改善土壤的理化性质,随着间伐强度的增加,土壤容重有所降低,土壤孔隙度和持水量有所提高;土壤pH值呈现先升高后略有降低的趋势,全K、速效K、全P、速效P、全N、速效N含量先升高后略有降低,其中中度间伐效果最好。综合考虑,对长白落叶松林分进行中度间伐较为适宜。     

Influence of variable retention harvests on forest ecosystems: Plant and mammal responses up to 8 years post-harvest

Green-tree retention systems are an important management component of variable retention harvests in temperate zone coniferous forests. Residual live trees (“legacy trees”) provide mature forest habitat, increase structural diversity, and provide continuity in the regenerating stand. This study was designed to test the hypotheses that, at up to 8 years after harvest, abundance and species diversity of communities of (i) understory plants and (ii) forest-floor small mammals, and (iii) relative habitat use by mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), will decline with decreasing levels of tree retention. Communities of plants and forest floor small mammals were sampled in replicated clearcut, single seed-tree, group seed-tree, patch cut, and uncut forest sites in mixed Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)—lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) forest in southern British Columbia, Canada from 2000 to 2003 (5–8 years post-harvest). Habitat use by mule deer was measured during summer and winter periods each year from 1999 to 2003 in these same sites.     

Spatial variability in stand structure and density-dependent mortality in newly established post-fire stands of a California closed-cone pine forest

Fire is an important process in California closed-cone pine forests; however spatial variability in post-fire stand dynamics of these forests is poorly understood. The 1995 Vision Fire in Point Reyes National Seashore burned over 5000 ha, initiating vigorous Pinus muricata (bishop pine) regeneration in areas that were forested prior to the fire but also serving as a catalyst for forest expansion into other locales. We examined the post-fire stand structure of P. muricata forest 14 years after fire in newly established stands where the forest has expanded across the burn landscape to determine the important factors driving variability in density, basal area, tree size, and mortality. Additionally, we estimated the self-thinning line at this point in stand development and compared the size-density relationship in this forest to the theorized (−1.605) log-log slope of Reineke’s Rule, which relates maximum stand density to average tree size. Following the fire, post-fire P. muricata density in the expanded forest ranged from 500 to 8900 live stems ha⁻¹ (median density = 1800 ha⁻¹). Post-fire tree density and basal area declined with increasing distance to individual pre-fire trees, but showed little variation with other environmental covariates. Self-thinning (density-dependent mortality) was observed in nearly all stands with post-fire density >1800 stems ha⁻¹, and post-fire P. muricata stands conformed to the size-density relationship predicted by Reineke’s Rule. This study demonstrates broad spatial variability in forest development following stand-replacing fires in California closed-cone pine forests, and highlights the importance of isolated pre-fire trees as drivers of stand establishment and development in serotinous conifers.     

不同间伐强度对蒙古栎林下乔木幼树更新及多样性的影响

根据对辽宁山区蒙古栎林下幼树调查资料,采用Simpson指数和Shannon-Wiener指数等进行多样性测度分析,探讨不同间伐强度对蒙古栎林下幼树更新和植物多样性的影响。结果表明:中度间伐强度有利于蒙古栎林下幼树实生更新,从而有利于其诱导成实生林,增强林分抗病虫害能力,提高林下物种多样性,增加林分稳定性。     

旅游对清西陵古油松林节肢动物群落结构及其多样性的影响

2005年5~10月对清西陵古油松林的节肢动物群落进行了调查,分析了古油松林节肢动物群落组成结构和多样性,讨论了旅游干扰对古油松林节肢动物群落的影响。结果表明,旅游活动对古油松林节肢动物群落的结构和多样性有显著影响,从而为保护和合理利用古油松资源提供理论依据。     

Impacts of bucking and delimbing alternatives on pulpwood and energy wood yields in young thinning stands in Finland

The supply of energy wood from young forests could be enhanced by altering the harvesting methods in integrated pulpwood and energy wood thinnings. In this study, effects of different bucking and delimbing options on the biomass division into energy wood, pulpwood and logging residue were estimated in integrated thinnings of young stands dominated by Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), Norway spruce (Picea abies) or birches (Betula spp.) in Finland. Thinning options were simulated in the harvestings of model stands created on the basis of forest inventory data. Increasing the minimum top diameter of pulpwood (MTDP) expectedly increased energy wood and decreased pulpwood yields. Depending on tree species, energy wood yield increased by 36–65% when the top diameter was increased from the regular level (6 or 7 cm) to 8 cm in whole-tree harvesting, and was more than doubled when the top diameter was increased to 10 cm. Delimbed energy wood yield was increased by 240–280% when the top diameter was increased to 10 cm. Total harvesting yield in whole-tree thinnings was slightly increased by increasing top diameter. These increments in harvesting yields and reallocations of tree biomass could have an impact on large-scale forest energy potentials.     

Impacts of thinning on structure,growth and risk of crown fire in a Pinus sylvestris L. plantation in northern Spain

We studied the combined effects of thinning on stand structure, growth, and fire risk for a Scots pine thinning trial in northern Spain 4 years following treatment. The thinning treatments were: no thinning, heavy thinning (32–46% of basal area removed) and very heavy thinning (51–57% of basal area removed). Thinning was achieved via a combination of systematic and selective methods by removing every seventh row of trees and then by cutting suppressed and subdominant trees in the remaining rows (i.e., thinning from below). Four years after thinning, mean values and probability density distributions of stand structural indices showed that the heavier the thinning, the stronger the tendency towards random tree spatial positions. Height and diameter differentiation were initially low for these plantations and decreased after the 4-year period in both control and thinned plots. Mark variograms indicated low spatial autocorrelation in tree diameters at short distances. Diameter increment was significantly correlated with the inter-tree competition indices, and also with the mean directional stand structural index. Two mixed models were proposed for estimating diameter increment using a spatial index based on basal area of larger trees (BALMOD) in one model versus spatial competition index by Bella in the other model. As well, a model to estimate canopy bulk density (CBD) was developed, as this variable is important for fire risk assessment. Both heavy and very heavy thinning resulted in a decrease of crown fire risk over no thinning, because of the reduction in CBD. However, thinning had no effect on the height to crown base and thus on the flame length for torching. Overall, although thinning did not increase size differentiation between trees in the short term, the increase in diameter increment following thinning and the reduction of crown fire risks support the use of thinning. Also, thinning is a necessary first step towards converting Scots pine plantations to more natural mixed broadleaved woodlands. In particular, the very heavy thinning treatment could be considered a first step towards conversion of overstocked stands.     

黑龙江省东部山区森林植物多样性与环境梯度的相关性研究

为了探讨森林植物多样性与环境梯度的相关关系,本研究在黑龙江省帽儿山国家森林公园调查了23块不同结构的森林群落,每个群落布设的样方面积为400m2。森林植物多样性的计算采用Shannon-Wiener多样性指数,环境梯度的量化采用Whittaker的集合环境梯度计算方法,同时,采用相似性测度方法计算了Beta多样性指数。结果表明:Shannon-Wiener多样性指数随环境梯度的增大而增大,并且β多样性指数与环境梯度呈线性增加的趋势。图2表3参12。     

梵净山稀果杜鹃群落结构及物种多样性初步研究

稀果杜鹃是贵州梵净山山顶杜鹃灌丛群丛特色物种之一,是构成梵净山杜鹃长廊景点的关键物种。采用常规群落生态学调查,对梵净山稀果杜鹃群落的种类组成、物种多样性及群落结构进行了研究,结果表明:在600 m2的样地中,共有维管植物15科25属27种,灌木层中稀果杜鹃重要值最高;物种多样性特征分析显示该群落多样性指数偏低,灌木层中优势种明显,物种分布随机性大,草本层物种较少,分布较均匀;群落垂直结构简单,高度集中在3～3.5 m,群落垂直结构稳定。