Anatomic-topographic description of the stomach, small intestine, large intestine and their arteries of the greater mara (Dolichotis patagonum Desmarest 1820)

The abdominal parts of the alimentary canal and the associated arteries from seven male and nine female maras are described. The mara possesses a stomach with a single cavity and a glandular mucosa lining. The large stomach is situated caudal of the liver at right-angles to the longitudinal body axis. The long jejunum is located on the left side of the body caudal of the stomach. The cecum has two teniae and numerous haustra which are proximal larger than distal. The smooth colon ascendens runs proximal parallel to the cecum and describes distal an U-shaped double-loop. The internal surface of the proximal part of the colon ascendens is characterized by two parallel mucosal ledges. Cecum and colon ascendens lie right caudal of the liver. The colon descendens is coiled and situated on the left body side. The A. gastrica sinistra and branches of the A. lienalis and the A. hepatica supply the stomach. The A. mesenterica cranialis which branches of separately from the A. coeliaca is a large and long vessel that supplies the major parts of the small intestine and the colon. The A. mesenterica caudalis supplies parts of the colon desendens and of the rectum.     

The topography and gross anatomy of the gastrointestinal tract of the Cape dune mole-rat (Bathyergus suillus)

The Cape dune mole-rat, Bathyergus suillus, is the largest truly subterranean rodent in the world and is restricted to sandy soil areas of the southern and South-western Cape Province. These animals are herbivorous, feeding mostly on the below ground portions of grass and geophytes. The present study was undertaken to explore whether there are any gross anatomical gastrointestinal adaptations associated with the herbivorous diet of the Cape dune mole-rat and to provide a basis for further investigations into the nutrition and ecology of this animal. The stomach was unilocular (simple) and the entire internal aspect displayed macroscopically visible glandular epithelium. The caecum was voluminous and arranged into a spiral of approximately one and a half turns. The tip of the caecum resembled a vermiform appendix and lay against the left lateral abdominal wall. The ascending colon consisted of proximal and distal portions, arranged in a large double loop and attached to each other by a fat-filled mesenteric fold. The looped, folded ascending colon filled the right side of the abdominal cavity, lying against the right dorsal, lateral and ventral abdominal wall. The internal structure of the ascending colon revealed a shallow groove, lined on either side by a row of papillae. The simple, glandular stomach in conjunction with a prominent caecum and a greatly enlarged ascending colon suggests that this animal is a hindgut fermenting herbivore, rather than a caecal fermenter, as is the case in most rodent species.     

Gastrointestinal ultrasonography in normal adult ponies

The objective of this study was to determine the characteristics based on ultrasonographic examination of the stomach, duodenum, jejunum, cecum, and peritoneal fluid in normal adult ponies. Abdominal ultrasonographic examination was performed in nine unsedated standing ponies. The duodenum was examined at three sites and the jejunum in 12 regions. Wall thickness, contractility, distention, and luminal contents were recorded. Stomach wall thickness and location, cecal wall thickness, and peritoneal fluid location and character were recorded. Statistical analysis was performed. Wall thicknesses (in cm) were 0.431 +/- 0.069 for the stomach, 0.188 +/- 0.033 for the duodenum (at all sites), 0.195 +/- 0.031 for the jejunum (at all regions), and 0.179 +/- 0.031 for the cecum. Duodenal contractions per minute were 3.78 +/- 1.10. The stomach spanned 5.14 +/- 0.9 intercostal spaces, with the 8th intercostal space being the most cranial and the 15th intercostal space being the most caudal space through which the stomach was identified. It was possible to identify the jejunum in all ponies dorsal to the left dorsal colon and from the ventral abdominal wall. Peritoneal fluid was identified in six ponies. Peritoneal fluid was usually seen transiently and most commonly in the ventral aspect of the abdominal cavity or around the duodenum. Overall, the ponie's abdominal ultrasonographic examinations revealed wall thicknesses that were less than the published normal ranges for horses. It appears that ponies may have increased duodenal contractility than horses and that the conformation of ponies may change the locations for imaging the stomach.     

USE OF COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY TO EVALUATE THE INTESTINAL TRACT OF ADULT LLAMAS

In the llama, signs of colic are obscure and may be exhibited as persistent sternal recumbency and anorexia even in the presence of a surgical lesion. Diagnostic methods for evaluation of abdominal disorders are limited. As a result, surgical intervention may be prolonged and increase the risk of mortality and postoperative complications. The objective of this study was to determine the feasibility of computed tomography to evaluate the llama intestinal tract. Eighteen hours prior to the computed tomography scan, six llamas were given barium sulfate (15%) via an orogastric tube. Following induction of general anesthesia, the llamas were positioned in sternal recumbency, and 10 mm contiguous slices were obtained from the diaphragm to the tuber ischiadicum. Structures that were consistently identified included the first, second, and third compartments (C1, 2, and 3), small intestine, spiral colon, and ascending colon. C1 was easily identified in the cranial aspect of the abdomen due to its large size relative to the other compartments and characteristic saccules. C2 was located cranial, ventral, and to the right of Cl, while C3 was visualized as a tubular structure to the right and ventral to C1 and C2, C3 was traced caudally until it turned dorsally and continued cranially to a dilated ampulla in the right cranial abdomen delineating the entrance to the small intestine. The spiral colon was identified consistently in the left ventral caudal abdomen. Structures that could not be conclusively identified included the cecum and mesenteric lymph nodes. Computed tomography allowed a consistent evaluation of the major intestinal structures associated with colic in the llama. Thus, computed tomography is a potentially valuable noninvasive diagnostic tool to effectively evaluate the abdominal cavity and differentiate medical from surgical lesions in the llama.     

Reference Values and Repeatability of Transabdominal Ultrasonographic Gastrointestinal Tract Thickness and Motility in Healthy Donkeys (Equus asinus)

The present study aimed to provide reference ranges for the wall thickness and motility pattern of the gastrointestinal tract from a sample of donkeys (Equus asinus) population using B-mode ultrasonography. In the present study, 30 clinically healthy donkeys (Equus asinus) (15 males and 15 females), aged 2–20 year old and weighed 100–280 kg were randomly selected for B-mode ultrasonographic scanning of the abdomen. The wall thickness of the stomach, duodenum, jejunum, left colon, right colon, and cecum was assessed. Moreover, the motility pattern of the duodenum, jejunum, left colon, right colon, and cecum was evaluated over a period of 3 minutes. Abdominal ultrasonographic scanning of the gastrointestinal tract of healthy donkeys explored that the stomach, duodenum, jejunum, left colon, right colon, and cecum could be visualized easily. The wall thickness of the stomach, duodenum, jejunum, left colon, right colon, and cecum was 7.0 ± 0.9 mm, 3.3 ± 1.0 mm, 5.4 ± 0.6 mm, 5.1 ± 0.5 mm, 5.4 ± 0.5 mm, and 5.4 ± 0.6 mm, respectively. The thickest part of the gastrointestinal tract is the stomach, whereas the thinnest part is the duodenum. The motility pattern of the duodenum, jejunum, left colon, right colon, and cecum was 7.7 ± 1.3 contractions/3 minutes, 6.9 ± 1.1 contractions/3 minutes, 4.1 ± 1.2 contractions/3 minutes, 5.5 ± 1.3 contractions/3 minutes, and 4.0 ± 0.8 contractions/3 minutes, respectively. Both the duodenum and jejunum contractions were significantly higher than that of the left colon, right colon, and cecum. This is the first study reporting the reference values for both the wall thickness and motility pattern of the gastrointestinal tract in healthy donkeys (Equus asinus) in Egypt. Good knowledge of these standard and reference values of the wall thickness and motility pattern of gastrointestinal tract structures represents a step in the early diagnosis of the gastrointestinal disorders, including colic in such animal species.     

Arterial Vascularization of the Gastrointestinal Tract of the Pampas Deer (Ozotoceros bezoarticus,Linnaeus, 1758)

Based on gross dissection of fifteen adult animals (11 females, 4 males), we described the arterial supply of the stomach and intestines of the pampas deer (Ozotoceros bezoarticus), a South American endangered species. The coeliac artery emitted the splenic, left gastric and hepatic arteries. The splenic artery directed towards the spleen, and the right ruminal artery, which is its only collateral directed towards the stomach, being the main artery of the rumen. The left gastric artery gave origin to the left ruminal, the reticular and the left gastroepiploic arteries. The left gastroepiploic artery originated the reticular accessory artery. Both arteries, gastric and left gastroepiploic, anastomosed their right counterparts derived from the hepatic artery on the curvatures of the abomasum. The cranial mesenteric artery irrigated the second half of the duodenum until the beginning of the descending colon. The thickest branch emitted by the cranial mesenteric artery was the ileocolic artery, which was destined to the ascending colon, caecum and ileum. The colic branches and the right colic arteries were irradiated on the right surface of the spiral loop of the ascending colon and distributed to both centripetal and centrifugal coils of the ascending colon; the colic branches were also anastomosed with the last jejunals and ileals and with the right colic arteries. There were no variations in the origin of any of the main branches derived from the coeliac and cranial mesenteric arteries. This species had a basic pattern of arterial distribution similar to small domestic ruminants.     

Lagevariationen von Caecum und Colon ascendens beim Degu (Octodon degus, Molina 1782)

Twenty formalin fixed animals, nine male and eleven female, belonging to the genus Octodon degus (Molina 1782) were examined as to the topography of the cecum and ascending colon (Colon ascendens). The cecum shows differing forms and positions. The position of the Caput ceci is normally on the left side, directed cranially or caudally. Besides its topography on the left side, it can extend over the median level to the right side or remain with caput and corpus on the right, while the apex appears on the left side in front of the entry to the pelvis. Further findings were that the ascending colon (Colon ascendens) is arranged in two superimposed, often spiral folds, which may differ as to their form and extension, depending on the position of the cecum.     

Obstructive enterolith in an 11-month-old miniature horse.

An obstructive enterolith was diagnosed in an 11-month-old 68-kg miniature horse with a 24-hour history of mild, intermittent colic. Abdominal radiography revealed gas distention of the cecum and the right and left ascending colon, and a radiodense elliptical structure in the area of the left kidney. During exploratory laparotomy, the right dorsal colon was noticed to contain ecchymotic hemorrhage and generalized discoloration in the portion proximal to the location of the enterolith. While exteriorizing the ascending colon, it ruptured caudal to the diaphragmatic flexure in the right dorsal colon. Radiography of the enterolith did not reveal a metallic center, but division of the stone allowed identification of a canvas cloth, and chemical analysis determined the stone's composition to be ammonium magnesium phosphate. Although equine enteroliths were reported over 100 years ago and the factors involved in their formation were investigated, the reasons for their development have yet to be determined. The mean reported age of horses requiring abdominal surgery because of an obstructive enterolith is 10 years, with the youngest being 4 years. The time required for an enterolith to enlarge is unknown, although a true enterolith has not been reported in horses younger than 4 years of age.     

The topography of the thoraco-abdominal viscera in the ostrich (Struthio camelus)

The topography of the thoraco-abdominal viscera in the ostrich was studied in 20 birds varying in age from 2 weeks to 12 months. The lungs occupied the dorsal third of the thorax, and the heart lay in the cranioventral thorax perpendicular to the long axis of the body. There was no pleural cavity. The liver was situated in the caudoventral part of the thorax, and the proventriculus occupied the left cranial part of the abdomen between the 7th vertebral rib and the acetabulum. The gizzard lay in the cranioventral part of the abdomen, resting on the sternum and abdominal floor. The duodenum formed a loop from right to left, with the pancreas lying between the 2 limbs of the loop. The coiled jejunum and ileum occupied the ventral part of the abdomen between the gizzard and pelvis. The two caeca lay on either side of the terminal ileum with their apices in the pelvis. The rectum was the longest part of the intestine and could be divided into a thick proximal segment situated in the right dorsal part of the abdomen, and a thin distal part that occupied the left caudodorsal part of the abdomen. The trilobed kidneys lay along the ventral surface of the synsacrum, with the adrenal glands at their cranioventral poles. The testes lay ventrally to the cranial divisions of the kidneys, whereas the left ovary was situated ventrally to the cranial division of the left kidney. The spleen lay wedged in between the right kidney, caudal vena cava and proventriculus. The thyroid glands were situated at the cranial borders of the subclavian arteries, and the thymus lay at the base of the neck.     

Ultrasonographic characteristics of abdominal and thoracic abscesses in cattle and buffaloes

Six cows and five buffaloes with abdominal and thoracic abscesses were examined clinically and ultrasonographically. There was a wide range of clinical signs and at least 50% of the animals exhibited dull demeanour, anorexia, abdominal pain, recurrent tympany and/or weight loss. Three cases of abdominal abscesses were imaged in the left ventral abdomen between the rumen and abdominal wall, two cases were imaged at the xiphoid cartilage near the reticular wall and one case was imaged on the right ventral abdomen between the jejunum and right abdominal wall. Four cases of thoracic abscesses were imaged in the third intercostal space on the left side; however, one case of abscess was imaged in the fourth intercostal space, also on the left side. The content of the abscess was echogenic in eight animals and anechoic in three. In three animals, the content of the abscess was partitioned by echogenic septae. In two cows, the echogenic content of the abscess was surrounded by a narrow rim of anechoic fluid. The diameters of the abscesses were 5-10 cm in three cows, 11-15 cm in seven cows and >15 cm in one cow. In every case, the diagnosis was confirmed by centesis and aspiration of the abscess, which yielded purulent material. There were biochemical data of hypoalbuminaemia and hyperglobulinaemia and 90% of tested animals had neutrophilia. Five cows were examined at slaughter, where the ultrasonographic diagnosis was confirmed.     

Cryptorchidism and monorchism in cats: 25 cases (1980-1989).

Of 1,345 cats admitted for orchiectomy during a 10-year period, 23 (1.7%) were cryptorchid and 2 (0.1%) were monorchid. Persian cats were over-represented in the cryptorchid population (P = 0.01). Cats were more likely to be unilaterally than bilaterally cryptorchid (P = 0.01). A predisposition for location of undescended testes (abdominal vs inguinal or right vs left side) was not identified in unilateral cryptorchids. All bilateral cryptorchids had abdominally located testes. The most common surgical approaches used for orchiectomy of cryptorchid cats were a caudal ventral midline incision for inguinal testes and a caudal ventral midline celiotomy for abdominal testes.     

Gastric Torsion from an Intestinal Hernia Through a Rent in the Gastrosplenic Ligament in a Horse

The present report describes an 8-year-old gelding presenting with signs of severe abdominal pain. After performing a thorough physical examination, including rectal palpation and additional diagnostic tests, an exploratory laparotomy was recommended. The jejunum was found herniated through the gastrosplenic ligament, and the stomach was severely distended with gas. Given a poor prognosis, the horse was euthanized on the table. At necropsy, the stomach appeared dilated, with an 180° horizontal gastric torsion, from left (lateral) to right (medial), dividing the organ into dorsal and ventral compartments. We believe that the chronic traction exerted by an incarcerated and distended loop of jejunum, in the dorsal aspect of the gastrosplenic ligament, associated with trauma during episodes of intense rolling, enlarged the rent until it ruptured. Because of this rupture, the lateral dorsal aspect of the stomach became unattached, predisposing it to the torsion.     

Echocardiography of the normal bovine heart: technique and ultrasonographic appearance

Fifty-one clinically healthy cows were examined ultrasonographically from the third and fourth intercostal spaces on both sides of the thorax. A 3.0 MHz transducer was used and the heart was examined in the caudal long, caudal short and cranial long axes on the right side, and in the caudal and cranial long axes on the left side. In each position the optimal transducer orientation and the images of the structures were recorded. In the caudal long axis view of the heart on the right (transducer positioned at the fourth intercostal space), all four chambers were visible with the transducer positioned 8 to 10 cm dorsal to the level of the olecranon. The left ventricular outflow tract, consisting of the aortic valve and ascending aorta, were visible in the same position with the transducer rotated 10 to 40 degrees clockwise. In the caudal short axis view of the heart on the right, the left and right ventricles were visible in cross-section with the transducer held at right angles to the ribs in the fourth intercostal space, 3 to 6 cm dorsal to the olecranon and tipped slightly dorsally. In the cranial long axis view of the heart on the right, the right ventricular outflow tract, consisting of the pulmonary valve and pulmonary artery, was visible in the third intercostal space, 8 to 10 cm dorsal to the olecranon with the transducer angled craniodorsally and rotated 10 to 20 degrees clockwise. In the caudal long axis view of the heart on the left, the left and right ventricles and the left ventricular outflow tract were visible with the transducer placed in the fourth intercostal space. In the cranial long axis view on the left, the right ventricular outflow tract was visible.     

Arterial supply to the rat colon

Rats are often used as animal models in studies such as on intestinal transplantation and anastomosis healing, which require colectomy. Although detailed information regarding arterial supply is important to establish accurate and reproducible experimental procedures, this has not been studied in the rat colon. Therefore, we analysed the detailed arterial distribution pattern and its individual variations in the colon of 34 rats. The rat colon received colic branches of the ileocolic artery, and the right, middle and left colic arteries. The single left colic artery constantly arose from the caudal mesenteric artery and was distributed to the descending colon, whereas the others showed variations in number and distribution. The ileocolic artery gave rise to one (12%) or two (88%) colic branches supplying the proximal ascending colon, and these branches formed rich, mesh-like anastomoses along the initial portion of the ascending colon. One (74%) or two (26%) right colic arteries originated from the cranial mesenteric artery and supplied the ascending colon and right colic flexure. Moreover, one (38%), two (56%) or three (6%) middle colic arteries emerged from the cranial mesenteric artery and were distributed to the transverse colon, left colic flexure and proximal descending colon. In total, we categorized the individual variations in arterial branching and anastomosis into 11 patterns. Arterial supply to the rat colon showed a specific pattern and frequent individual variations. These findings thus provide essential information for establishing reproducible models of rat colic surgery.     

A huge ovarian cyst in a hysterectomized bitch

A 11-year-old, spayed, female mixed breed-dog was presented with an abdominal mass that was detected 1 month ago. Upon abdominal palpation a large, firm, oval shaped, movable mass was found in the mid-abdominal region. Survey radiograph of the abdomen demonstrated an oval soft tissue dense mass located on the right side of the abdominal cavity. A large, heteregenous and cystic mass with solid components occupying the majority of the abdomen and a small, cystic mass with solid components caudal to the left kidney were identified by transabdominal ultrasonography. Computed tomography scans revealed bilateral ovarian masses, and a small volume of retroperitoneal fluid on the right side. A cystic, but otherwise solid mass located in the right ovary and small retained left ovary encapsulated in the ovarian bursa were excised surgically by midline laparotomy. Histopathological examination of the excised mass from the right side revealed a large cystic structure consistent with an ovarian cyst and multiple corpora lutea and follicles at different maturational stages were detected in the left ovary. The precise origin of the ovarian cyst could not be determined by morphological appearance. Immunohistochemical staining suggested a cyst of surface epithelial origin. At re-examination 6 months after the surgery, the bitch appeared healthy and the clinical findings were all normal. To our knowledge, the cyst described here is the largest reported in an incompletely ovariohysterectomized bitch.     

Late Abscess Formation Caused by Silk Suture Following Hysterectomy in a Female Dog

A 5‐year‐old female cross‐breed dog was presented for a one‐month history of lethargy, poor appetite and weight loss. A hysterectomy had been performed 2 years ago. Abdominal palpation revealed a mid‐abdominal mass and haematological analysis showed leucocytosis with left shift. On abdominal radiographs, a 9 cm in diameter soft tissue opacity mass ventral to the colon and caudal to the left kidney was observed. The abdominal ultrasonography revealed a mass well circumscribed, with a hyperechoic capsule and hypoechoic center with echoic debris. The presumptive diagnosis was an abscess due to foreign body granuloma. Laparotomy was performed and a mass close to the left ovary was found. Adhesions and residues of the suture material were observed close to the right ovary and the uterine body stump. The mass, both ovaries and adhesions were removed. On cut section of the mass two cavities were observed. The small one contained three embedded silk suture residues. Histopathological examination confirmed the diagnosis of a chronic abscess caused by silk suture.     

Laparoscopic Anatomy of the Abdomen and Laparoscopic Ligating Loops,Electrocoagulation, and a Novel Modified Electroligation Ovariectomy in Standing Mare

The purpose of this study was to provide a detailed laparoscopic anatomy of the caudal abdominal region of mare in a standing position and to evaluate and modify a technique for standing laparoscopic ovariectomy using combination between hand-tied ligating loop and electrocoagulation techniques, as the ligating loops, electrocoagulation, and modified electroligation laparoscopic ovariectomy were applied using nine adult mares. Laparoscopy was practical and effective for direct visual examination of internal abdominal organs in the mare. Ventral dislocation of abdominal viscera after pneumoperitoneum was established with the mare in standing position, which provided an excellent inspection of the dorsal and ventral structures in the peritoneal cavity on the right and left sides. Standing laparoscopic ovariectomy using an electroligation modified method was considered a safe and effective method for hemostasis of the mesovarium, technically easy, time saving, and economical. The mean surgical time for bilateral ovariectomy was 40 ± 7.63, 60 ± 5.25, and 85 ± 6.43 minutes for electroligation-modified technique, ligating loops technique, and electrocoagulation technique, respectively.     

Mucosal distribution of eosinophilic granulocytes within the gastrointestinal tract of horses

OBJECTIVES: To establish reference values for the range of the number of eosinophils found in equine gastrointestinal mucosa and to describe the distribution of this cell within the equine gastrointestinal mucosa. SAMPLE POPULATION: Gastrointestinal mucosal specimens from 14 adult horses euthanatized for reasons other than gastrointestinal disease. PROCEDURES: Gastrointestinal mucosal specimens were collected and grouped according to their anatomic regions. For histologic examination slides were stained with Luna's eosinophil stain to determine eosinophil accumulation and distribution. The mucosa was divided into 5 sections for each anatomic location, and the percentage of eosinophils in each of the 5 sections relative to the total eosinophil count in all sections was determined. Additionally, the number of eosinophils per square millimeter of mucosa was calculated as a measure of the degree of eosinophil accumulation. RESULTS: Lowest numbers of eosinophils were found in the stomach, and numbers increased from there to the cecum, then decreased from the ascending colon (right ventral colon, left ventral colon, pelvic flexure, left dorsal colon, and right dorsal colon) to small colon. In all gastrointestinal sections, most eosinophils were located near the muscularis mucosae and were rarely found near or on the luminal surface of the mucosa. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The distribution of eosinophils in the gastrointestinal tract of horses followed a pattern within the mucosa and between different sections of the gastrointestinal tract. The derived reference values and distribution data could be used to detect changes in eosinophil response in the equine gastrointestinal mucosa caused by diseases states.