Solving the problem of carbon dioxide emissions

More than just an environmental challenge, the problem of carbon dioxide emissions is a basic human rights issue. This paper proposes a solution to the problem based on the proposition of Green Human Right that all men are created equal and thus entitled to equal carbon dioxide emissions per person. Countries with per capita carbon dioxide emissions above that of the global average must pay for the privilege to pollute. Conversely, countries with that below the global average are entitled to compensations.To determine the excess or slack carbon dioxide emissions of individual countries, the total carbon dioxide emissions of every country are adjusted for international trade to account for carbon dioxide out-sourcing and carbon sequestration by forests and forest products to arrive at their net carbon dioxide emissions. Countries with above the global average in net per capita carbon dioxide emissions have excess emissions. Those with below the global average have slack emissions. Total excess or slack carbon dioxide emissions are determined by multiplying the per capita excess or slack per capita emissions by its population. They then pay into or get compensated from the Green Climate Fund based on their respective excess or slack carbon dioxide emissions.Based on the total excess carbon dioxide emission figures from 2009 and $10 per ton of carbon dioxide emissions, major excess emission countries and the amount of money they would pay into the Green Climate Fund are the U.S. $40.8 billion, Japan $7.8 billion, U.K. $5.1 billion, Canada $4.7 billion, Germany $4.6 billion, and Russia $4.2 billion. China, for the first time, also would become an excess emission country and would pay $446 million, thus obliterating the artificial separation between developed and developing countries and removing a major stumbling block in climate change negotiations. Major slack emission countries and the amount of money they would earn from the Green Climate Fund are India $3.7 billion, Pakistan $645 million, Bangladesh $626 million, Nigeria $433 million, Ethiopia $358 million, the Philippines $351 million and Vietnam $333 million.The incentives created by the proposed solution would propel all countries to focus on controlling or lowering their total global carbon dioxide emissions. Excess emission countries have incentives to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions to lower their payments. Slack countries also have incentives to lower or limit their emissions, if they want to keep earning money over time. When the price of carbon dioxide emissions is high enough, its impact on the global carbon dioxide emissions would be significant. Furthermore, as a dynamic system, every year the price set for carbon dioxide emissions would depend on how quickly the total global carbon dioxide emissions are being reduced through conservation efforts and technical innovations. Once the price is set, there is total transparency. Every country will know exactly how much it would either pay into or earn from the Green Climate Fund, sparing rich countries from haggling over how much each will pay and poor countries over how much each will earn.     

Impact of site management on changes in soil carbon after afforestation: A review

Afforestation and forest management can increase carbon stocks and account for emission reduction according to the     

Biogeochemical impacts of clearfelling and reforestation on blanket peatland streams I. phosphorus

Forest drains and streams on blanket peatland in western Ireland were sampled weekly, 1996–2000, using continuous, depth-proportional passive sampling, and analysed for molybdate-reactive phosphorus (MRP) by the acid–antimony-molybdate method. The study area was largely clearfelled and partly reforested with wind-rowing, drainage, planting, and aerially applied rock phosphate equivalent to 70 kg P/ha. Further felled areas were not wind-rowed, drained or fertilised for reforestation. Catchment areas were of the following orders: 1 ha (two forest drains); 10–20 ha (two semi-permanent drains, one permanent stream); 1–3 km² (three permanent streams). Streamwater from three undisturbed closed-canopy-forest catchments had pre-felling median concentrations of MRP (all values are μg MRP l⁻¹) of 9 (catchment approximately 1 km²), 13 (1 ha) and 93 (1 ha). Clearfelling was associated with large increases (maxima 305, 4164 and 3530 μg MRP l⁻¹) in MRP concentrations in each case. Following protracted mechanical operations in four other catchments of ca. 1 km², 20, 10 and 10 ha, with apparently existing elevated MRP concentrations (medians 41, 328, 102, 214 μg MRP l⁻¹) fertilising gave major rises (maxima 218, 2723, 806, 2323 μg MRP l⁻¹). The three smaller catchments showed subsequent exponential-type declines, while the 1 km² catchment had sustained high values (median 74 μg MRP l⁻¹) over the remaining study period. The higher values in this one larger stream were seasonally cyclical, with a late summer maximum. Annual median MRP values above 70 μg l⁻¹ represent a seriously polluted state for these streams, which qualify as waterways under relevant statutes, but it is not clear what implications these results have for downstream river-water quality in larger channels.     

不同树种配置模式对碳汇造林初期土壤碳变化的影响

为研究不同树种模式模式碳汇造林对土壤碳的影响,该试验将立地条件基本一致的6个区组作为研究区,设计5个模式模式(各树种数量分数,模式1:台湾相思40％、木荷40％、马占相思10％、樟树10％;模式2:华润楠25％、红锥25％、樟树20％、米老排10％、木麻黄10％、水翁10％;模式3:马占相思30％、华润楠25％、山杜英...     

Methane and CO2 exchange over peatland and the effects of afforestation

The exchange of CH₄ and CO₂ over extensive tracts of peatlandhas recently been measured using micrometeorological methods.Fluxes of CH₄ measured in Caithness (UK) during May and June1994 using eddy covariance yielded fluxes in the range –70to +170 µmol CH₄ m^–2 h^–1 with a mean fluxof 39 µmol CH₄ m^–2 h^–1 Landscape emissions of CH₄ from peatland are shown to vary withwater table and temperature, increasing from 25 µmol CH₄m^–2 h^–1 at 5 per cent area to 50 µmol CH₄m^–2 h^–1 with 30 per cent within the footprint occupiedby pool. A positive temperature response of 4.9 µmol CH₄m^–2 h^{–1 {ring}} C^– in the temperature range6–12^{ring}C was also observed The mean day time fluxes of CO₂ during May and June 1994, of—3.6 mmol m^–2 h^–1 were two orders of magnitudelarger than the emission of CH₄ of 40 µmol m^–2 h^–1,while at night (when net radiation is negative) the respirationflux of CO₂ averaged +2.2 mmol m^–2 h^–1approximatelytwo orders of magnitude larger than night-time CH₄ emissionsof 30 µmol m^–2 h^–1.     

吸水剂在造林中的应用效果试验

吸水剂处理过的苗木 ,其浓度为 1.5 %的处理效果最好 ,其平均成活率为 90 .0 3% ,平均比对照高了 8.2 3% ,最高可达到 13.7%。其各处理树种成活率由高到低分别为杨树 >香樟 >大叶女贞 >花椒 >对照。在土壤含水量上 ,每穴 5克拌土型吸水剂最大持水量为 12 6 .16 % ,浓度为2 %的博亚蘸根型吸水剂最大持水量为 76 .33% ,而对照仅为 5 1.1%吸水剂。在我省干旱地带利用吸水剂造林 ,对提高苗木成活率具有显著效果     

The impact of land afforestation on carbon stocks surrounding Tehran,Iran

The city of Tehran,like many polluted metropolises of the world,has higher emissions of greenhouse gases than other cities in Iran,due to heavy consumption of fossil fuel and landuse changes.To estimate carbon sequestration in two 40 year-old stands of planted Cupressus arizonica and Fraxinus rotundifolia in degraded lands surrounding Tehran,sampling of above-and below-ground biomass,soil(at two depths of 0-15 and 15-30 cm),and leaf litter was done by systematic random sampling.The total carbon stocks of C.arizonica and F.rotundifolia stands were respectively 328.20 and 150.69 Mg·ha-1.The aboveground biomass with 233.16(71%)Mg·ha-1 in C.arizonica and88.16(58.50%)Mg·ha-1 in F.rotundifolia contributed the most shares to carbon sequestration.The diameter at breast height,total height,basal area,total volume,and biomass of C.arizonica were significantly(p0.01)higher than those of F.rotundifolia.Also the depth of 0-30 cm of soil contributed between 18.29%and 32.15%of total ecosystem carbon,respectively.The economic value of carbon sequestration in the two stands in 2011 was calculated at 3.5 and 2.5 million dollars,respectively.Our results indicate that afforestation of the degraded land surrounding Tehran would sequester more carbon than would continuously degraded land,the current status quo.These stands can absorb atmospheric CO2 at different rates,thus tree species selection and stand development should be considered in planning future afforestation projects.     

The effect of afforestation on water recharge and nitrogen leaching in The Netherlands

Water balances and nitrogen budgets were studied in two chronosequences of oak and spruce on former arable land. Quantity and quality of rainfall and throughfall, soil water contents and concentrations in the soil solution were measured during a period of 1–2 years. Hydrological fluxes were calculated using the soil hydrological model SWAP. Nitrogen leaching fluxes were based on monthly measured concentrations and simulated hydrological fluxes. Results showed that water recharge declined from approximately 485 mm/yr in arable land to 172 mm in the 18-year old oak stand and approximately 100 mm in the 13 and 14-year old spruce stands. For both chronosequences the decline in water recharge upon afforestation can be described by a power function; the exponent being −0.22 for oak and somewhat higher, −0.31, for spruce. Nitrogen leaching fluxes were negligible in the spruce stands and declined with age in the oak stands, from 16 kg/ha/yr at the youngest stand to 8 kg/ha/yr at the 18-year old stand. The nitrogen budget for the four oak stands increased with age. An explanation for this unexpected result may be the declining release of nitrogen by mineralization of organic matter present in the (former) agricultural soil. The data provide valuable information for the validation of simulation models and decision support systems used for policy decisions.     

干旱地区造林的几种整地方法

造林整地，是提高造林成活率，改善林木生长条件的重要环节。整地的好坏，往往成为造林成败的决定性因素。特别在水土流失严重、气候特别干旱的黄土高原地区，细致整地的作用就显得更为重要。通过整地，可拦截地表径流，蓄水保墒，提高土壤的抗旱能力；改善立地条件，调节造林地的光照、热量、水分和空气状况，以满足不同树苗、幼树的需要；     

盐碱地改良及造林技术的探讨

对盐碱地改良提出3种措施,除施入有机肥外,还可以施入天然沸石和糠醛渣进行改良土壤。施入沸石后可使土壤黏重变小,降低土壤容重和含盐量;施入糠醛渣,可使土壤pH值下降0.1~0.2,土壤盐分总量降低。盐碱地造林可以选择耐盐碱树种,同时进行高台整地,排水降盐。     

孟加拉哈提亚地区海岸造林对土壤性质的影响

在孟加拉诺阿卡利地区及相临裸地,对海岸植被(12年和17年生无瓣海桑Sonneratia apetala)进行探索性研究,以便了解海岸造林对土壤特性的影响.在三种不同地带(内陆、中部、海边),在12年生和17年生无瓣海桑林下,土壤深度分别为0-10,10-30和30-40cm,土壤湿度、土壤粒度、有机质、C含量、总N、pH、有效P、K、Na、Ca和Mg含量明显高(p≤0.05,p≤0.01,p≤0.001)于其相临裸地的数据,土壤含盐量明显(p≤0.01)低于其相临裸地的数据.在内陆CharAlim植被,土壤表面的土壤湿度,土壤粒度,有机质,C含量、总N、pH、土壤含盐量、有效P、K、Na、Ca和Mg含量分别为:31.09%、2.24 g·cm-3、2.41%、4.14%、0.58%、7.07、O.09 dS·cm-1、28.06 mg·L-1、O.50 mg·L-1、11.5 mg·L-1、3.30 mg·L-1和2.7 mmol·kg-1;而在相邻的Char Rehania贫瘠地区的相同土壤深度,其相关值分别为:16.69%、1.25g·cm-3、O.43%、0.74%、O.25%、6.57、0.13 dS·cm-1、13.07mg·L-1、O.30mg·L-1、1.4 mg·L-1、O.30 mmol·kG-1和0.50 nag·L-1.然而,在小内陆到海边的植被中,土壤湿度、土壤密度、有机质、C含量、总N、pH、有效P、K、Na和Ca含量逐渐降低,而土壤含盐量、Na和Mg含量却逐渐增加.虽然,在植被与相临裸地的不同土壤深度中土壤质地不同,植被地中砂土份额明显(p≤0.01)低于相临裸地,而粉砂土份额则明显(p≤0.001)高于裸地.在本研究中,所有参数的评价也在为其他地区相关研究得到应用.     

泥质海岸盐碱地绒毛白蜡与紫穗槐混交造林效果的研究

通过在中盐碱地上修台田,布置绒毛白蜡与紫穗槐混交试验,结果表明:混交林的绒毛白蜡树木生长情况好于纯林;紫穗槐在种植2年后具有较高的生物量,主要以茎生物量为主;混交林下的土壤在2年后从中盐碱土变为轻盐碱土,虽然纯林的全盐量有所降低,但效果不如混交林显著;土壤全氮、碱解氮在混交模式下有显著提高;土壤有机质含量是纯林高于混交林。     

紫色土流失区造林后生境恢复的分析

对福建省沙县凤凰山紫色土流失区造林后 2 0a植被、土壤等生境的变化进行分析。结果表明 :采取生物措施是紫色土流失区水土保持的关键措施 ,能够有效地改善生境。经过 2 0a的造林、管护 ,原有荒山秃岭 ,植被零落稀少 ,土层浅薄 ,部分区域母质层裸露的紫色土流失区 ,现在已林木葱茏 ,郁郁葱葱 ,生长发育形成多树种复层林。土壤肥力得到了很大改善 ,现有土壤层已达 2 8～ 6 0cm ,残落物和腐殖质得以保存。土壤容重下降 ,土壤非毛管孔隙、总孔隙度增加了 4 9 1%～ 78 0 %、8 7%～ 2 2 7%。土壤 >0 2 5mm水稳性团聚体含量平均达到 35 %～5 1% ;土壤养分有不同程度的提高。紫色土流失区造林后 ,恢复了生长环境 ,有着显著的经济、生态和社会效益     

Effects of afforestation on soil carbon and its fractions: a case study from the Loess Plateau,China

Afforestation has been implemented to reduce soil erosion and improve the environment of the Loess Plateau,China.Although it increased soil organic carbon(SOC),the stability of the increase is unknown.Additionally,the variations of soil inorganic carbon(SIC) following afforestation needs to be reconfirmed.After planting Robinia pseudoacacia,Pinus tabuliformis,and Hippophae rhamnoides on bare land on the Loess Plateau,total soil carbon(TSC) was measured and its two components,SIC and SOC,as well as the light and heavy fractions within SOC under bare lands and woodlands at the soil surface(0–20 cm).The results show that TSC on bare land was 24.5 Mg ha~(-1) and significantly increased to 51.6 Mg ha~(-1) for R.pseudoacacia,47.0 Mg ha~(-1) for P.tabuliformis and 39.9 Mg ha~(-1) for H.rhamnoides.The accumulated total soil carbon under R.pseudoacacia,P.tabuliformis,and H.rhamnoides,the heavy fraction(HFSOC) accounted for 65.2,31.7 and 76.2%,respectively; the light fraction(LF-SOC) accounted for 18.0,52.0 and 4.0%,respectively; SIC occupied 15.6,15.3 and 19.7%,respectively.The accumulation rates of TSC under R.pseudoacacia,P.tabuliformis,and H.rhamnoides reached159.5,112.4 and 102.5 g m~(-2) a~(-1),respectively.The results demonstrate that afforestation on bare land has high potential for soil carbon accumulation on the Loess Plateau.Among the newly sequestrated total soil carbon,the heavy fraction(HF-SOC) with a slow turnover rate accounted for a considerably high percentage,suggesting that significant sequestrated carbon can be stored in soils following afforestation.Furthermore,afforestation induces SIC sequestration.Although its contribution to TSC accumulation was less than SOC,overlooking it may substantially underestimate the capacity of carbon sequestration after afforestation on the Loess Plateau.     

木炭的土地利用及碳汇效应

在土壤中施入木炭颗粒,不仅能提高土壤的透气、透水、保水性能,提高土地的生产力及产品的品质,而且阻断了木炭本身成为碳源的通道。同时,通过提高植物的生长量,可更多地吸收大气中的CO2,提高碳汇效应。     

杉木连栽地福建柏造林效果初报

在不同地类杉木连栽地营建福建柏、杉木等树种块状混交林7处,面积67.8 hm2。经5~6年生幼林期调查,福建柏材积年平生长量在山区与杉木基本持平,在半山区和丘陵区大于杉木。福建柏材积年平生长量在山区杉木连栽地存在海拔高差异,其材积年平均生长量600 m>700 m>800 m。在海拔600 m杉木连栽地营建福建柏与杉木混交林,两个树种生产力均较高。     

芝山区"三难地"造林绿化技术探讨

以永州市芝山区“三难地”改造项目为例,在科学发展观和因地制宜、突出重点、注重实效等原则指导下,提出“三难地”造林的关键技术,即合理选择树种,进行科学整地,注意草、灌、乔的种植顺序,同时做好客土施肥、结构配置和抚育管理等项工作。     

Effects of coastal afforestation on some soil properties in Lakshmipur coast of Bangladesh

Coastal zones comprising important intertidal tropical and subtropical ecosystems are characterized by high productivity, diversity and unique zonation of various plant and animal communities. The comparison of some selected physicochemical soil properties viz. texture, particle density, moisture content, pH, organic carbon and total nitrogen between planted site （Telir char） and barren site （Boyar char） has been investigated at surface （0-10 cm） and subsurface （10-45 cm） soil across three different land strips viz. inland, middle part and sea side in Lakshmipur coast of Bangladesh. Sand particles in the soil were lower in planted site than barren site. The reverse trend was found in case of both silt and clay percentage. Coastal afforestation had a significant effect on soil binding process since a common trend of increment in soil particle density was noticed. Maximum increment （20.43% to 23.30%） in soil moisture content was recorded in surface soil across the seaside while at subsurface soil both across the middle part （19.53% to 22.30%） and sea side （20.19% to 22.96%）. Moreover, the highest reduction in soil pH was recorded at surface soil （7.27 to 6.60） across the sea side and subsurface soil （7.16 to 6.67） in inland due to the influence of coastal plantation. Across all the land strips and the soil depths studied, soil organic carbon was higher in planted site than in barren site with only exception at subsurface soil in the middle part （0.50% in both sites）. Total soil nitrogen in the study area was increased at both depths due to forestation with the highest increment in the inland at both surface and subsurface soil.     

雷竹山地造林效果研究

经过试验研究表明:山地不同坡位对雷竹笋用林的造林成活率、出笋成竹等方面都有较大的影响,在山坡下部造林效果明显比山坡中部、上部好;雷竹上山造林效果不好。