Values and beliefs about urban forests from diverse urban contexts and populations in the Greater Toronto area

Cities around the world are diverse. People’s perceptions of urban forests may vary according to urban contexts and people’s diverse identities. A better understanding of these diverse perceptions is critical to support stewardship initiatives, inform urban tree decisions, and guide community engagement, among other key management and governance processes in urban forestry. This study examines the values and beliefs that diverse people living in a variety of urban contexts associate with urban trees. Using an urban gradient approach, 2009 responses were collected through an online panel survey conducted in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) to understand variations in values and beliefs of urban forests across municipal types (inner core, suburban, peri-urban, and regional cities). The GTA has an ethnoculturally diverse population, allowing us to also explore perceptions held by people with various identities. The study uses analytical techniques, such as means differences and linear regression models, to segment the diverse meanings people attribute to urban trees by municipal types and people’s identities. The results show that, while people value the urban forest very highly, people’s value orientations vary depending on their context and identities. For example, respondents who speak European or South Asian languages tend to hold value orientations related to cultural, social, and identity issues. Respondents living in inner municipal types tend to hold values related to identity issues, whereas respondents living in outer municipal types and regional cities tend to hold values related to natural issues. The results also show that people’s beliefs about urban forests are primarily positive. Urban forests managers and stewardship initiatives should recognize the diverse set of values and beliefs that people associate with urban forests, incorporating these perceptions into policy and programs. Additionally, since specific value and belief orientations may depend on personal identity and urban contexts, tailored messaging may also help generate support for policy or stewardship initiatives across different communities and in varied urban contexts.     

Species diversity of urban forests in China

A good knowledge of species diversity is essential for urban forest planning and management. In this study, we analyzed species diversity of urban forests in China using data synthesized through a systematic review. Our analysis showed that 3740 taxa of woody plants at species level and below have been reported in urban forests in 257 cities. Merging to the species level, there were 2640 species, including 1671 trees, 743 shrubs, and 226 lianas. Salix babylonica L. was the most widely distributed urban tree species in China. Overall, native species accounted for 76.02% of the observed species while the rest were exotic species. Inside cities, parks contained more species than other types of land use. Among cities, composition similarity of urban forests decreased as spatial distances among them increased. Besides, there was a latitudinal pattern in compositional similarity of urban forests in China. The relatively low ratio of the number of woody plant species in urban forests to these naturally distributed in China indicates that there is plenty of room for increasing species diversity of urban forests in China. However, cautions must be taken to avoid increasing compositional similarity of urban forests in China at the same time.     

Urban residents value multi-functional urban greenspaces

Urban greenspaces are multifunctional spaces, providing services to people and biodiversity. With space in urban areas being limited creation and maintenance of urban greenspaces relies on understanding the preferences of urban residents for their characteristics. Such preferences are expected to vary with current availability, and the availability of alternatives to greenspaces such as gardens or gyms. We carried out a nationwide discrete choice experiment with Scottish urban residents to estimate values associated with greenspace attributes of: recreational features; plants and natural features; trees; accessibility; time to walk from home and size, to test the hypotheses that: (i) people are willing to pay to maintain greenspace, (ii) people have willingness to pay for greenspaces with multiple functions, including features for direct use (e.g. play equipment) and biodiversity (e.g. wildflowers), (iii) willingness to pay for individual greenspace will vary according to socioeconomic characteristics and (iv) vary with the amount of greenspace or substitute facilities available. We find a positive willingness to pay to maintain greenspace in general, and higher willingness to pay for larger greenspaces closer to home, which are multifunctional and contain both direct use features (e.g. children’s play park) and biodiversity features. Although we find significant heterogeneity in willingness to pay for maintaining greenspace, this is not well explained by either socioeconomic characteristics or the availability of substitute facilities. Our results have relevance for urban natural capital accounting, and demonstrate to urban planners the importance of the design and maintenance of multi-functional greenspaces for urban populations and would benefit from future research that further explores heterogeneity, including perceptions of greenspace access and substitutes, and greenspace quality.     

Adapting silvicultural management systems to urban forests

An important objective of forest science today is to better serve the cultural and recreational needs of a growing urban population. Forests are complex open systems with multiple functions and to maintain credibility among the public, people in charge of the management of urban forests need to draw on the expertise of a variety of scientific disciplines, not only the humanities, but increasingly also the forest engineering and forest biological sciences. The multi-disciplinary character of forest research can be utilized to achieve a more effective interface between science and politics.The objective of the paper is to present a system for silvicultural management of forests within urban landscapes. The system includes three elements:1. Forest Options Planning, using suitable tools for generating and evaluating silvicultural management options;2. Management Demonstration and Referencing, based on a network of managed and unmanaged field plots;3. Silvicultural Event Analysis, involving preventative evaluation of silvicultural activities based on event-oriented resource assessment.It is concluded that, considering their social and cultural importance, the forests within the growing urban landscapes are hardly receiving the scientific attention they deserve.     

Contested construction of nature for city fringe outdoor recreation in southern Sweden: The Arrie case

This article deals with the process of change from industrial land to recreational area on a 60 ha piece of land 12 km southeast of Malmö, southern Sweden, called Lake Arrie. The area is an abandoned gravel quarry in the midst of an agricultural landscape. We present a short background and the current situation in Arrie, setting out to capture the tendencies of the contemporary construction of nature for outdoor recreation. We then move on to discuss the salutogenic aspects of outdoor recreation, and how these can be traced in the actual landscape at Arrie. Furthermore, we open the discussion on diversity as a cherished post-modern ideal both in nature and culture. Different interests and ideologies may cause conflicts in the planning process. To capture the multitude of voices emanating among stakeholders, the process to extract local opinions through participatory processes is presented. The social and political categorisation of an area reflects the needs of a changing society. In the early industrial era, the area was an enclave of industrial ground in a completely rural setting. In the post-industrial era, it turned into a ‘wasteland’, open for nature to recolonise. This type of landscape is difficult to categorise, being an ‘inbetween-land’, neither nature nor culture, perceived as ephemeral and inferior. At the same time, the city sprawled closer, with the semi-urban populations’ need for outdoor recreation. In future, the former industrial ground will be perceived as an enclave of nature in an urban setting. When the former products of the area responded to the industrial need for gravel and limestone, the contemporary ‘products’ respond to emotional needs.     

Exploring the urban park use,preference and behaviours among the residents of Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia

The understanding of cross-cultural upon park usage is vital to be enhanced among public since findings that been discovered in the Western context are not own any similarities with the Asian context. In fact, it has been in a long run for the Western nations to primarily contextualized and conceptualized much on the literature of park usage. This study aims to look at how the people use and perceive urban parks in their daily life in the Malaysian cultural context, and also highlights the constraints faced by Malaysians while using the urban parks in the city of Kuala Lumpur. A survey consisted of 669 urban park users as the sample of the study (365 men, 304 females) aged between 18 and 73 years (M = 34.85, SD = 11.46) were conducted in five urban parks in Kuala Lumpur. Respondents were recruited based on a random sampling method, which composed of three main ethnic groups in Malaysia. Malaysians wanted to use the urban parks for multiple purposes including active activities and others. Most of them would visit the parks and spend their time in a group consisting of family members or friends rather than alone. The percentage of respondent with 74.7% stated their reason of visiting the urban park in order “to get fresh air”, followed by the factor of reducing stress and relaxing with 69.7%; and the latter reason would be “to exercise, play games or keep in shape” with 61.4%. More than 80% of the respondents claimed the parks in Kuala Lumpur are safe to be visited. This is because, majority of the respondents tend to visit the parks in group of family or friends rather than alone. In addition, most of the respondents would run their activities in parks during the weekends, which simultaneously make them to enjoy their day in such comfortable and secure way. The findings of this survey would contribute to a better understanding of the present park usage of Kuala Lumpur residents. With a better understanding of current park-visiting habits, various constraints faced by the residents related to public security and safety, the Kuala Lumpur City Hall have been suggested to develop more comprehensive strategy in order to provide engagement and urban parks stimulation for its residents. In addition, this study is also fruitful for Kuala Lumpur future parks in terms of its development, design and management.     

Ecological functions and human benefits of urban forests

The recent sprawl of urbanization in the Eastern U.S. perpetuated by population growth and economic success has caused landscapes to become vulnerable to degradation. As urban development encroaches on such landscapes, various anthropogenic stressors are introduced including air pollution, land conversion, and alterations in watershed hydrology. Across various disciplines, urban forests have been presented as a method to ameliorate human and environmental health in metropolitan environments. Understanding how to incorporate urban forestry into city design is critical and urban planners would benefit from a review that holistically describes the diverse set of services urban forests have to offer. We conducted a review to highlight the ecological functions and human benefits of urban forests and to identify gaps in the literature. We synthesized the findings of research studies in the last 20 years to illuminate the human, abiotic, and biotic services of urban forestry. As environmental quality is rapidly deteriorating in anthropogenic environments, our findings suggest city planners should consider trees as a method of mitigation to alleviate these impacts. Ultimately, when managing urban forests, an interdisciplinary approach involving all levels of governance is necessary to ensure the maximum potential of urban trees. Through this study, the consolidated research can aid in sustainable development and innovation to combat the anthropogenic stressors associated with the sprawl of urbanization.     

Fragmentation and recreational use affect tree regeneration in urban forests

The aim of this study was to test whether fragmentation or recreational use affect tree regeneration in urban forests, and to quantify these effects. We sampled tree saplings at different distances from edges in spruce (Picea abies) dominated forests, and at different distances from paths that represented different levels of wear. Generalized linear mixed models were used to test our hypotheses. We found that fragmentation favours the regeneration of deciduous trees in urban spruce dominated forests: distance from the edge had a pronounced effect on regeneration, at least up to 80 m into the forests. Saplings of Betula pendula, Populus tremula, other deciduous species and Pinus sylvestris benefited from edge conditions. Betula pubescens saplings, however, were most abundant in the interior and small Sorbus aucuparia saplings at 25–30 m from the edge. All species suffered from the direct effects of trampling, while varying responses of species to distance from the paths were observed up to 6 m, and possibly further. As trees essentially define the living conditions for other forest species, we suggest that the spatial extent of edge and trampling effects should be studied for different types of forests. This knowledge should then be used in urban forestry and planning to define the threshold value that will allow for at least some “intact” interior. We suggest a diameter larger than 160 m to support indigenous species in boreal spruce dominated forests.     

Characteristics of the urban forests in arctic and near-arctic cities

The urban forest of three arctic and near-arctic cities (Murmansk in Russia, Nuuk in Greenland, and Reykjavik in Iceland) were surveyed to determine tree species composition and structure. Interviews with local authorities were conducted to learn about the history of urban tree planting. The urban forests of all three cities were composed of a limited number of trees and tree species due to abiotic constraints of the arctic and near-arctic environment. These limitations include: low temperature, short growing season, high wind velocity and permafrost. A total of 28 species were observed in the three cities. Only three of these (Alnus incana (L.) Moench, Picea abies (L.) Karst., Betula pubescens Ehrh., and Salix glauca L.) were observed in all three of the cities. Planting designs that created windbreaks for pedestrians were common along streets in Murmansk and Reykjavik. Street trees have not yet been introduced in Nuuk, but trees were found in cemeteries, parks, and on private property. Older portions of cemeteries in all three cities were characterized by trees planted directly on graves. These grave trees were the first trees to be introduced in these cities. Subsequently, ‘trial and error’ was used by local residents to plant trees. Much of these plantings failed. In recent times arboreta were established near all three cities to identify species suited for planting under arctic and near-arctic conditions. Trees identified in these test gardens are now being planted in Murmansk and Reykjavik.     

Attitudes towards tree protections,development, and urban forest incentives among Florida (United States) residents

Tree ordinances can be an effective means of preserving urban forests in the face of development pressures. Despite this, they also have the potential to be divisive among the public - especially when applied to privately-owned land. In this study we surveyed 1716 Florida urban residents to understand how they value regulation and management of the urban forest. Specifically, we asked about: tree protection ordinances, incentive programs to manage or plant trees, justification for tree removal, and development. Most respondents supported tree protections, even when applied to trees on their own property or when they had the potential to limit development activities. Additionally, there was limited support for removing healthy trees for development. Respondents supported the use of funds for urban forestry efforts – particularly at the local or state level.     

Recreation use of urban forests: An inter-area comparison

Recreation use in two urban forests in Vienna, Austria was compared. Visitors to an inner-urban forest and to a peri-urban forest were monitored by means of video observation during 1 year, from dawn to dusk. The amount of use and the temporal use pattern of the main user types, identified by video interpreters as walkers, cyclists, dog walkers and joggers, were compared. In the inner-urban forest, surrounding settlements, schools and business areas evoked high-use pressure, commuting activities, high shares of all-day activities, more morning and evening use particularly on workdays and, overall, more workday use. The peri-urban forest was, by far, not so heavily used and the proportion of daily routine activities such as dog walking and jogging was reduced because of the lower population density in the surroundings. While the potential for user conflicts in the inner-urban forest seemed to be quite high at weekends and workday late afternoons and evenings, in the peri-urban forest this potential was only high during weekend afternoons in the warmer season, due to the temporally concentrated appearance of walkers and bicyclists.     

Modelling the spread of tree pests and pathogens in urban forests

Understanding the potential dynamics of tree pests and pathogens is a vital component for creating resilient urban treescapes. Epidemiologically relevant features include differences in environmental stress and tree management between street and garden trees, and variation in the potential for human-mediated spread due to intensity of human activity, traffic flow and buildings. We extend a standard spatially explicit raster-based model for pest and pathogen spread by dividing the urban tree population into roadside trees and park/garden trees. We also distinguish between naturally-driven radial spread of pests and pathogens and human-mediated linear spread along roads. The model behaviour is explored using landscape data for tree locations in an exemplar UK town. Two main sources of landscape data were available: commercially collated aerial data, which have high coverage but no information on species; and, an urban tree inventory, with low, non-random, coverage but with some species data. The data were insufficient to impute a species-specific host landscape accurately; however, by combining the two data sources, and applying either random or Matérn cluster point process driven selection of a subset of all trees, we create two sets of potential host landscapes. We find that combining the two mechanisms of dispersal has a non-additive effect, with the enhanced linear dispersal enabling new foci of infection to be established more rapidly than with radial dispersal alone; and clustering of trees by species slows down the expansion of epidemics when compared with random distribution of tree species within known host locations.     

A trait-based typification of urban forests as nature-based solutions

Urban forests as nature-based solutions (UF-NBS) are important tools for climate change adaptation and sustainable development. However, achieving both effective and sustainable UF-NBS solutions requires diverse knowledge. This includes knowledge on UF-NBS implementation, on the assessment of their environmental impacts in diverse spatial contexts, and on their management for the long-term safeguarding of delivered benefits. A successful integration of such bodies of knowledge demands a systematic understanding of UF-NBS. To achieve such an understanding, this paper presents a conceptual UF-NBS model obtained through a semantic, trait-based modelling approach. This conceptual model is subsequently implemented as an extendible, re-usable and interoperable ontology. In so doing, a formal, trait-based vocabulary on UF-NBS is created, that allows expressing spatial, morphological, physical, functional, and institutional UF-NBS properties for their typification and a subsequent integration of further knowledge and data. Thereby, ways forward are opened for a more systematic UF-NBS impact assessment, management, and decision-making.     

Carbon storage and sequestration by urban forests in Shenyang,China

Urban forests can play an important role in mitigating the impacts of climate change by reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂). Quantification of carbon (C) storage and sequestration by urban forests is critical for the assessment of the actual and potential role of urban forests in reducing atmospheric CO₂. This paper provides a case study of the quantification of C storage and sequestration by urban forests in Shenyang, a heavily industrialized city in northeastern China. The C storage and sequestration were estimated by biomass equations, using field survey data and urban forests data derived from high-resolution QuickBird images. The benefits of C storage and sequestration were estimated by monetary values, as well as the role of urban forests on offsetting C emissions from fossil fuel combustion. The results showed that the urban forests in areas within the third-ring road of Shenyang stored 337,000 t C (RMB92.02 million, or $ 13.88 million), with a C sequestration rate of 29,000 t/yr (RMB7.88 million, or $ 1.19 million). The C stored by urban forests equaled to 3.02% of the annual C emissions from fossil fuel combustion, and C sequestration could offset 0.26% of the annual C emissions in Shenyang. In addition, our results indicated that the C storage and sequestration rate varied among urban forest types with different species composition and age structure. These results can be used to help assess the actual and potential role of urban forests in reducing atmospheric CO₂ in Shenyang. In addition, they provide insights for decision-makers and the public to better understand the role of urban forests, and make better management plans for urban forests.     

Individual households and their trees: Fine-scale characteristics shaping urban forests

In urban areas, the pattern of trees is often a result of municipal policy, built form, neighborhood socioeconomic conditions, and the actions of local actors. Recent research has focused on the role of neighborhood socioeconomics, and begun to explore the underlying causes of uneven distributions of urban forests associated with different socioeconomic groups. To date, little work has explored property-level tree conditions in relation to disaggregated household characteristics and actions, yet the household is the scale where most decisions about residential tree planting and care are made. This study examines the role of property-level built conditions, household socioeconomics, and residents’ actions and attitudes in relation to property-level canopy cover and tree density. The study area is four neighborhoods in the City of Mississauga (ON, Canada). Regression analyses were conducted to explore significant variables related to the two tree measures for all properties together and separately by neighborhood. The results indicate that property conditions and residents actions are more important in relation to tree variations than socioeconomic factors. Additionally, several significant factors have opposite relationships with percent canopy cover and tree density. These results highlight the need to consider property-level built conditions, residents’ actions, and multiple measures of the urban forest to better understand the patterns of trees in cities.     

Human pathways are barriers to beavers damaging trees and saplings in urban forests

Urban North American beaver (Castor canadensis) damage of trees and saplings was compared between shore forests and forests uphill of macadam, wood chip, and raised wood board human pathways used daily in Radnor Lake State Natural Area, Nashville, TN. Also, comparisons of beaver damage were made between shore forests and forests uphill of bare earth deer paths used less than once a month by humans and the forests were on 5% and 30% slopes. Means, standard deviations, and t-tests (P ≤ 0.05) were calculated for percent beaver damage, which included undamaged stems, beaver-cut stems, and beaver-cut stumps. Significant differences in beaver damage of trees and saplings were found between forests uphill of the human pathways used daily and the respective shore forests. Beaver damage of trees and saplings was not significantly different between the shore forests and forests uphill of the deer paths used less than once a month by humans for the 5% slope forest; however, the differences were significant for the 30% slope forest. Beaver damage of trees and saplings was significantly greater in the uphill of the deer paths forests than the uphill of the human pathways forests for comparable slope forests. Human scent on the pathways used daily made of macadam, wood chips, and raised wood boards was interpreted to be the barrier sensed by beavers to not cross over or under the human pathways to damage trees and saplings. This research suggests utilizing human pathways as an odor fence to spatially limit beaver damage, which provides a whole forest management alternative to individual tree protection for management of beaver damage in the urban forest.     

Comparison of bird diversity between temperate floodplain forests and urban parks

Biodiversity in urban green areas has been widely explored in several bird studies because birds are known to be important bio-indicators. Many studies have investigated the different responses of bird communities to urbanization and land use changes in urban environments. However, there are still important knowledge gaps related to the impacts of the heterogeneity, spatial structure, and connectivity of green areas on avian diversity. Such information is needed for sustainable urban planning. In this study, we focused on the comparison of bird communities between urban parks in the heritage city of Olomouc and hardwood floodplain forests in the vicinity of the city. The results of the study indicate the high importance of urban parks for the maintenance of bird diversity even though urban parks are man-made habitats. The results highlight the importance of some native vegetation structures in urban parks (old trees, bush ecotones) for maintaining urban bird biodiversity. Some implications of the results can be widely used as a decision support tool for the management of urban green areas and for the planning of ecological networks in urban landscapes.     

The socioeconomics and management of Santiago de Chile''s public urban forests

Santiago, Chile's semi-arid climate and urbanized environment poses a severe limitation for the establishment and maintenance of urban forests. Municipalities, or comunas, are the main stakeholders in the management of Santiago's public urban forests. A tenable hypothesis would be that as the socioeconomic level of a comuna increases, the better the condition of a comuna's urban forest. Unfortunately, there is little comprehensive information on management, public expenditure, and structure of Santiago's public and private urban forests. To examine this hypothesis, Santiago was divided into socioeconomic strata, then using air photo interpretation and stratified field sampling, urban forest structures were quantified by socioeconomic strata. In addition, interview surveys were used to determine municipal urban forest management and expenditures for different public urban forests based on socioeconomic strata. Urban forests in the high socioeconomic strata had fewer public trees, greater tree cover, tree and leaf area density, and leaf area index than lower socioeconomic strata. The percentage of total municipal budget allocated to public urban forest management was consistent among strata, but the total public urban forest budgets were greater in the high socioeconomic strata. Public urban forest structure is related to the socioeconomic strata of Santiago's different comunas.     

Contested views of freedom and control: Children, teenagers and urban fringe woodlands in Central Scotland

Use of informal greenspace, such as urban fringe woodlands, by children and teenagers is potentially an important aspect of their development, allowing opportunities for free play and for experiencing nature at close quarters. The ways in which children and teenagers make use of woodlands can be classed as either positive (use) or negative (abuse) by landowners, managers and by different groups of children and teenagers themselves. As part of a wider study examining local use and social inclusion in woodlands close to towns in central Scotland, qualitative research techniques, including focus groups and site observations, were used to explore in depth the contested views of freedom and control as expressed by site managers, adults, children and teenagers. The results give further support to findings in the literature about the importance of access to natural areas for children and society's ambivalent attitude towards teenagers in public places. It also uncovered aspects of the attitudes of older teenagers and the ways in which their perceptions conflict with those of managers. In particular, older teenagers' needs and the opportunities woodlands can provide for developing a sense of identity and testing of boundaries are poorly understood or tolerated by managers. Further research is proposed, including more detailed examination of the degree to which children's and teenagers' engagement with nature today is restricted by comparison with previous generations, and the likely consequences of such restriction.     

Patterns and scale relations among urbanization measures in Stockholm,Sweden

In this study we measure urbanization based on a diverse set of 21 variables ranging from landscape indices to demographic factors such as income and land ownership using data from Stockholm, Sweden. The primary aims were to test how the variables behaved in relation to each other and if these patterns were consistent across scales. The variables were mostly identified from the literature and limited to the kind of data that was readily accessible. We used GIS to sample the variables and then principal component analyses to search for patterns among them, repeating the sampling and analysis at four different scales (250 × 250, 750 × 750, 1,250 × 1,250 and 1,750 × 1,750, all in meters). At the smallest scale most variables seemed to be roughly structured along two axes, one with landscape indices and one mainly with demographic factors but also impervious surface and coniferous forest. The other land-cover types did not align very well with these two axes. When increasing the scale this pattern was not as obvious, instead the variables separated into several smaller bundles of highly correlated variables. Some pairs or bundles of variables were correlated on all scales and thus interchangeable while other associations changed with scale. This is important to keep in mind when one chooses measures of urbanization, especially if the measures are indices based on several variables. Comparing our results with the findings from other cities, we argue that universal gradients will be difficult to find since city shape and size, as well as available information, differ greatly. We also believe that a multivariate gradient is needed if you wish not only to compare cities but also ask questions about how urbanization influences the ecological character in different parts of a city.