Providing animal health services to the poor in Northern Ghana: rethinking the role of community animal health workers?

The Community Animal Health Workers (CAHWs) system has been promoted as an alternative solution to providing animal health services in marginal areas. Yet, access to quality animal health services still remains a fundamental problem for livestock dependent communities. This paper uses the concepts of accessibility, affordability, and transaction costs to examine the perceptions of livestock keepers about the various animal health service providers. The empirical analysis is based on a survey of 120 livestock-keeping households in the Tolon-Kumbungu and Savelugu-Nanton districts in the Northern Region of Ghana. A multinomial logit model was used to determine the factors that influence households’ choice of alternative animal health service providers. The results show that the government para-vets are the most preferred type of animal health service providers while CAHWs are the least preferred. Reasons for this observation include high transaction costs and low performance resulting from limited training. In areas with few or no government para-vets, farmers have resorted to self-treatment or to selling sick animals for consumption, which has undesirable health implications. These practices also result in significant financial losses for farmers. This paper finds that the CAHWs’ system is insufficient for providing quality animal health services to the rural poor in marginal areas. Therefore, market-smart alternative solutions requiring strong public sector engagement to support livestock farmers in marginal areas and setting minimum training standards for animal health service providers merit policy consideration.     

Status and prospects for livestock production in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic

Some 16 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product of the Lao PDR arises from the livestock sector. Almost all output - live animals and products - is from traditional small scale production and about 90 per cent of all households in the country keep one or more species of livestock. Industrial or large scale production is of very minor importance even for pigs and poultry. Considerable international assistance has been provided for livestock development, initially from the Socialist states that were of the same political persuasion as Lao PDR and more recently from multilateral and bilateral development assistance agencies. In general this assistance has not conferred lasting benefits on the sector in part due to the failure of the Lao Government to provide continuing support commensurate with the sector’s contribution to the national economy. Buffalo (1.1 million head in 2004) and cattle (1.3 million head) are the main ruminant species with goats and sheep (140 000 head) occupying a very minor position. Both pigs (1.7 million) and poultry (19.6 million) are major contributors to the household and national economies. Buffalo are now mainly meat producers, their former draught and transport roles having been taken over by mechanical equipment. Cattle, also once used for draught, are almost exclusively producers of beef. Pigs and poultry produce meat and poultry provide eggs. Lao indigenous livestock are mainly kept in low input systems, thus output is also low. Nothing is known of the genetic potential of the indigenous stock which are the victims of poor management, inadequate nutrition and minimal health care. There is strong and rising demand for products of animal origin within the country and in the greater Southeast Asia and East Asia regions. Given suitable and appropriate support the Lao livestock sector would be in a strong position to contribute to supplying this demand.     

Seasonal influences on livestock keeping in a sedentary crop–livestock system

Although seasonality is recognised as an important part of agricultural-based livelihoods, limited literature is available on the subject area, and it is often only alluded to in discussion of other aspects of rural livelihoods. A 2-year longitudinal study to examine the influences of seasonal changes on livestock keeping in a smallholder crop–livestock production system was carried out in Busia District, western Kenya. The study aimed to obtain a picture of yearly variations in household activities and resources, as a means of understanding decisions made by households regarding animal health management, and household times of vulnerability in terms of losing animals. Data collection coincided with the three main seasons in the study area. Information on (inter alia) seasonal livelihood activities, animal health care expenses, numbers of disease episodes and livestock movements into and out of households was collected using questionnaires and participatory rural appraisal methodologies. Farmers suggested clear and consistent seasonal changes and events, but data analyses did not show the patterns expected in relation to livestock keeping. Important observations were made in relation to livestock disease episodes and the use of veterinary services; livestock disease episodes were higher during the long rains than in the dry season, but more money was spent during the dry season when numbers of disease episodes were low, and more households also used professional veterinary services during this season (χ ² = 81.47, P < 0.001). In both study years, a higher proportion of households treated animals themselves during the rainy seasons (z = −2.4, P = 0.02; z = −5.03, P < 0.001).     

Interest in Participating in Integrated Wildlife/Livestock Land Uses in a Rural Area in South Africa

Wildlife ranching is the fastest growing industry in South Africa, with most ranches having been converted from large-scale livestock farms. This article investigated perceptions and attitudes of rural communities located in wildlife-rich rural areas toward integrated wildlife/livestock land uses, and analyzed socio-demographic factors influencing household interest in these land uses. Data were collected from 130 households selected through stratified random sampling techniques from nine villages adjacent to the Kruger National Park. Results showed a general interest in pursuing wildlife land uses, but differences in attitudes toward wildlife between households with cattle and without. Multinomial regression results indicated that age, education level, monthly income, and cattle ownership significantly impacted the odds of a household being interested in participation or not. Addressing concerns about human–wildlife conflict and clarifying potential benefits to households and the community is necessary for increased interest in integrated land uses.     

Challenges and opportunities for smallholder livestock production in post-conflict South Kivu, eastern DR Congo

A survey on smallholder livestock production with emphasis on monogastric animals was conducted in 20 villages of seven so-called 'groupements' of South Kivu province in DR Congo, situated along a north to south-west axis with the town of Bukavu in the center. This land adjacent to Lake Kivu is located at elevations ranging around 900- 1900 m asl, experiencing tropical highland climate. A diagnostic survey helped to rapidly obtain in-depth knowledge of constraints and opportunities in this environment. Correspondence analysis and multiple regression analysis were used to investigate the association of production constraints with particular livestock species and to understand the factors that govern the number of livestock that people owned (converted to tropical livestock units [TLU]), respectively. Responses of 112 informants demonstrated that livestock is an integral part of the region's mixed farming systems. Low livestock numbers per household at present reflect the poverty as a consequence of recent violent conflicts. Currently, farmers focus on small livestock, like poultry, swine, cavies (i.e., Guinea pigs) and rabbits. Families keep livestock to accumulate household reserves that are strongly invested in children's education. Major issues of animal husbandry were related to animal diseases and lack of feed resources, particularly in the dry season. Lack of feed or forages were unrelated to a particular livestock species. Livestock holdings depended on animal diversity, location, land size available and respondents' education level. The potential introduction of improved forages is challenged by their dry-season tolerance, compatibility with cropping on small farms; and people's readiness to cultivate forages.     

Factors influencing choice of veterinary service provider by pastoralist in Kenya

This study analyzed the determinants for choice of animal health providers in a semiarid pastoral area with an aim of identifying specific attributes that could be targeted for intervention to enhance pastoralist access to quality veterinary services. The data were collected through administration of semi-structured questionnaires to 350 randomly selected household heads in different locations in Narok County of Kenya. Most of these respondents had no formal education (66.9 %), and most households were headed by men (88.9 %). The men were in control of sales (84.2 %), purchases (83.7 %), and treatment of sick cattle (70.3 %), while women were responsible for milking (83.8 %). Animal health services were delivered by drug stockists (87.76 %) and government veterinarians (12.24 %). The time spent while seeking animal health services and transport cost were specific attributes with impact on the probability of choice for service providers. Although distance covered to the preferred service provider was a significant attribute, it was inversely related to the probability of choice. The other factors including herd sizes, age and sex of household head, cost incurred per visit, level of education of household head, and the number of visits did not have significant impact on choices. These findings support commercialization of veterinary services in marginalized areas where the delivery of essential animal health services such as disease control programs are often viewed as a public good. In order to enhance delivery of veterinary services in these areas, it is proposed that public and private means are investigated to support qualified veterinarians and to strengthen the activities of untrained personnel operating drug outlets.     

典型草原家庭牧场草地资源利用行为分异机制及管理策略研究

以内蒙古锡林郭勒盟典型草原为研究区域,依据牧户调查样本数据及统计资料,研究家庭牧场草地资源利用行为分异机制及管理策略。结果表明,因牲畜规模不同,家庭牧场在融资、草场流转、超载经营等方面表现出差异性;分大户组和小户组对家庭牧场面板数据(Panel Data)生产函数模型回归,发现规模报酬和要素弹性存在分组差异。可见,家庭牧场草地资源利用行为分异的内在机制是以牲畜特殊资产性质为基础的家庭牧场融资能力-生产经营行为-草地资源利用行为的关联性差异,外部驱动条件则是市场化经营和草畜平衡管理制度。现行草原制度管理政策与家庭牧场差异性行为存在矛盾,建议设立草场流转补贴,以改善当前草场流转不畅的局面;考虑家庭牧场超载差异,减轻违规超载处罚力度,重视合法超载限额管理;加强牧业技能培训和非牧就业培训等,发展现代生态畜牧业。     

西藏自治区当雄县龙仁乡牧户草畜供求及经济状况分析

在西藏自治区当雄县龙仁乡选择101户牧户为调查对象,采用入户调查与实地观测相结合的方法,对该地区的草地资源以及牧户的家畜养殖、草畜供求和家庭收入现状进行分析。结果表明,该地区的人工草地建设、草地载畜量、草畜配置以及牧户的饲草收贮、家畜饲养方面存在突出问题;从提高人工饲草产量和质量、优先发展季节畜牧业、引导新型种草和养殖技术等方面提出了有针对性的建议。     

Traditional breeding objectives and practices of goat, sheep and cattle smallholders in The Gambia and implications in relation to the design of breeding interventions

This paper describes the traditional breeding objectives and practices of West African Dwarf goat, Djallonke sheep, and N’dama cattle keepers in The Gambia and discusses the implications of these on the design of breeding-related interventions to improve livestock productivity. Data were collected via surveys implemented within three study sites in The Gambia, where traditional mixed crop–livestock smallholder farming predominates. The surveys comprised a participatory rural appraisal conducted in nine communities and a household questionnaire targeting 238 households. Livestock-keeping households were classified as ‘poorer’ or ‘wealthier’ based on the number of cattle owned. The most important objectives for keeping all species of livestock for the poorer groups (0 to 10 cattle) was ‘savings and insurance’, followed by ‘income’ and ‘ceremonial/dowry’ for the small ruminants and ‘manure’ and ‘draught’ for both cows and bulls. In contrast, for the wealthier group (more than 10 cattle), savings and insurance was the fourth to seventh ranked production objective (depending on species), with the most important production objectives being ceremonial/dowry for goats, income for sheep and manure for cows and bulls. An analysis of breeding practices indicated that breeding animals are selected on criteria which partially align to the breeding objectives, animals are rarely purchased for the purpose of breed improvement, knowledge of the cause and consequence of inbreeding is low and breeding decision makers may not necessarily be the livestock owner, particularly if the livestock owner is a women. Given this, it is suggested that capacity building on breeding-related issues, particularly in relation to the selection of breeding animals and specifically targeted at the different socioeconomic groups of livestock keepers, may be an appropriate, effective and relatively low-cost breeding intervention.     

Livestock and livelihoods of smallholder cattle-owning households in Cambodia: the contribution of on-farm and off-farm activities to income and food security

The majority of smallholder farming households in Cambodia are rurally based and rely on agriculture to support their livelihoods. However, in recent years, growth in the agriculture sector has stagnated with farmers facing several challenges including declining prices for traditional crops and irregular rainfall patterns. This has led to a need for farmers to diversify income sources with livestock promoted as a more viable livelihood activity, particularly the raising of cattle and poultry. However, uncertain profitability of livestock activities is a common perception by smallholders, especially where animals have not been traditionally viewed as a primary income source. To address this, information is required which compares the income and expenses associated with livestock raising to other on-farm activities and off-farm sources. This study reports on a survey of livelihood survey of 17 male and 21 female representatives of 20 households owning cattle in Cambodia, comparing the associated income and expenses of the various livelihood activities in the 12-month period from January to December 2016. Combined total household income from both on-farm and off-farm sources ranged from USD875 to 17730 with an average of USD6779, representing 51% and 49% from on-farm and off-farm activities, respectively. Cattle raising was the most common source of on-farm income (85%), contributing USD1064 and representing 22% of total household income. General household expenses, such as food and transportation (including expenses associated with off-farm employment), represented the majority of total household expenses (79%). Gross profit calculations indicated higher values for pig raising (USD1841.79), cattle (USD950.80) and non-rice crops (USD884) whilst the highest gross margin value was recorded for cattle (89.33%) followed by vegetables (85.27%) and non-rice crops (83.08%). Whilst wet season and dry season rice returned a negative gross profit value of USD197.27 and USD90.60 on average per household, respectively, both were ranked as most important for household consumption, followed by poultry, providing the main source of energy (rice) and protein (chicken meat) and sustaining household food requirements. The study concludes that although smallholder cattle-owning households in Cambodia undertake a diverse range of on-farm activities, as cattle raising provides a superior income source due to higher returns and lower variable costs, it could be promoted as a preferred livelihood activity by agencies conducting rural extension activities. Although consideration of available labour and monetary funds to invest in cattle raising is required, it was observed that income from off-farm sources may prove beneficial in providing the additional monetary funds to support cattle-raising activities and assist in providing generally poor smallholder households with enhanced economic resilience.     

Role,ownership and presence of domestic animals in peri‐urban households of Kisumu,Kenya

Low‐ and middle‐income countries are experiencing rapid urban population growth, particularly in peri‐urban informal settlements. In these urban areas, animal husbandry remains a valuable source of income and protein‐rich foods but may also present a risk of zoonotic disease threat. To date, there have been studies that have assessed the prevalence and nature of animal ownership in these communities. This cross‐sectional survey assessed the geographical, sociocultural and economic factors behind the presence, ownership and purpose of domestic animals in three informal peri‐urban communities of Kisumu, Kenya. A majority (n = 587) of the study households exhibited domestic animal presence in the living space yet only 32% of households reported animal ownership (n = 252). The purposes of ownership included: for meat/eggs (55%); for income, sale or trade (43%); for milk production (31%); and as companions/pets (31%). Among households that owned animals, 76% reported that at least one animal slept in the house at night. In multivariate logistic regression, the following factors were significantly associated with household animal ownership: ownership of agricultural land (OR = 1.94, 95% CI = 1.12, 3.35), perceiving a strong community bond (OR = 2.28, 95% CI = 1.25, 4.16), and household membership in a community group (OR = 1.64, 95% CI = 1.04, 2.60). This research demonstrates the high prevalence of animal ownership in a low‐income and high‐density peri‐urban neighbourhood of an African city, which may facilitate zoonotic disease transmission. Further research should assess if and to what extent animal ownership in such communities is associated with disease risk.     

Prevalence of bovine tuberculosis and animal level risk factors for indigenous cattle under different grazing strategies in the livestock/wildlife interface areas of Zambia

A cross-sectional study was conducted to investigate the prevalence and animal level risk factors for bovine tuberculosis (BTB) in indigenous cattle of the livestock/wildlife interface areas in Zambia. A total of 944 cattle from 111 herds were investigated. The comparative intradermal tuberculin test (CIDT) was used to identify reactor animals for BTB. Animal level data on sex, age, parity and body condition score were registered. The overall animal prevalence of BTB as determined by the CIDT was 6.8% (95% CI: 4.2, 9.5%). In Lochinvar and Blue Lagoon areas, animal level prevalence were observed at 5.2% (95% CI: 2.2, 8.2%) and 9.6% (95% CI: 6.1, 13.2%), respectively. Kazungula, an area outside the livestock/wildlife interface, had a prevalence of only 0.8% (95% CI: 0.0, 2.3%). The age of the animal, its body condition score and the type of management system, were predictive of its BTB status. The study revealed that BTB was relatively high in the livestock/wildlife interface areas of Lochinvar and Blue Lagoon compared to Kazungula. These findings should raise a serious public health concern considering the extent to which the communities of the study areas are in contact with their animals and the levels at which they use untreated milk.     

资本禀赋视角下牧户的减畜行为及影响因素研究

基于青藏高原西藏那曲市的183户牧户数据，运用双栏模型探讨了资本禀赋的各要素对牧民减畜行为决策的影响。结果表明： 1）样本区牧户的减畜意愿较高，整体来看有61.40%的牧户愿意减畜，且愿意减畜的牧户当中，有67.16%的牧户愿意减畜的比例为当前养殖数量的30%及以下。2）经济资本中的牧业收入和拥有的房产价值对牧民的减畜意愿具有显著的促进作用，而家庭贷款、政府补贴和牲畜数量均对牧民的减畜意愿具有显著的抑制作用。在愿意减畜的条件下，家庭贷款、家庭储蓄、固定资产对牧民的减畜程度具有显著的抑制作用。3）文化资本中的受教育程度对牧民的减畜意愿具有显著的促进作用。4）社会资本中的制度信任和人际网络对减畜意愿具有显著的正向促进作用，而组织网络对减畜意愿具有显著的抑制作用，在愿意减畜的情况下，制度约束对牧民的减畜程度具有显著的抑制作用。     

气候变化对家庭牧场复合系统的影响及其牧民适应

家庭牧场土-草-畜-人复合生态系统是北方草原应对气候变化的基本单元,研究其适应性是促进牧区可持续发展的科学基础之一。以草业系统论构建家庭牧场气候变化适应性的研究方法,基于问卷调查研究了内蒙古草原10个旗县599个家庭牧场对气候变化的响应过程。结果表明,1)放牧地、打草场、饲料地、购草作为家庭牧场草料供给途径存在明显的区域分异,饲料地、购草之间具有替代效应;2)以干旱为主的极端气候是气候变化影响家庭牧场的关键因子,雪灾、沙尘暴、大风的影响在内蒙古各地呈现分异格局;3)牲畜、草场是气候变化作用于家庭牧场经营的主要介质,而通过土壤、人群、设施等要素对家庭牧场影响相对较小;4)购草、卖畜是牧户应对极端气候的主要适应行为,分别为保畜与减畜策略,比较而言,保畜策略更为常见。研究认为,家庭牧场复合系统对气候变化的响应发生于草畜-经营界面,草、畜2因子是反馈过程的关键节点。     

牧户家庭资产禀赋对其生计风险的影响—基于祁连山国家公园的调查

分析牧户生计风险及其影响因素,对于降低牧户生计脆弱性和减少生计风险负面影响等方面具有重要意义。利用专题调研的468份问卷,运用二元Logistic回归模型实证研究国家公园牧户生计风险及其影响因素。研究结果表明：祁连山国家公园牧户面临就业风险、市场风险、健康风险、养老风险和环境风险等多种生计风险的冲击,并且受到家庭资产禀赋不同程度的影响;生计风险按照严重程度依次为：就业风险>市场风险>健康风险>养老风险>环境风险;牧户家庭资产禀赋中的受教育程度、家庭年收入、牲畜数量、草地面积和草场退化情况等是影响其生计风险的显著因素。因此,加大政府就业扶持政策、鼓励牧户积极参与合作组织和完善农村合作医疗保险体系等措施,可改善牧户生计。     

The contribution of livestock to urban resilience: the case of Bamako,Mali

Urban livestock keeping is increasing in many sub-Saharan African cities, but detailed contextual information on its extent, challenges, and potential is limited. A cross-sectional household study was done in 2010 in Bamako, Mali. Thirty-two of 67 quarters were randomly selected with selection probability proportional to the size of the human population of the communes. Questionnaire interviews were done with a head of household in 1141 households, comprising 19,816 people in total. Sheep were kept by 16% (95% CI 14–18), while 21% (95% CI 17–24) kept poultry. The sheep to human ratio was 4:100, with an extrapolated city-wide population of 67,636 sheep (95% CI 61,018–75,595). The poultry to human ratio was 11:100, with an extrapolated city-wide population of 191,802 chickens (95% CI 176,212–208,772). For urban livestock holders, household-level enterprise gross margins were calculated for sheep production at USD 103 and poultry production at USD 50 annually. The annual gross margin was estimated at USD 35 per sheep and USD 17 per chicken. Based on these figures, the city-wide urban livestock total gross margin for Bamako in 2010 was estimated at USD 5.6 million. Detailed population data help clarify the urban livestock animal human interface in diverse contexts and highlight the important contributions that urban small-holder production adds to food security and resilience. The potential for urban livestock production informs decision-makers in developing adapted, sustainable policies in resource-constrained environments.

     

Trypanosomosis and phenotypic features of four indigenous cattle breeds in an Ethiopian field study

We conducted a two-part study in the native home areas of four cattle breeds, Abigar, Gurage, Horro and Sheko, in south-western Ethiopia. The first part of the study investigated livestock keeper knowledge about trypanosomosis and trypanotolerance. For each breed 60 livestock keepers were interviewed, resulting in a total of 240 interviews. The second part of the study focused on biological evidence for trypanotolerance. Blood samples of about 100 head of cattle per breed were collected during peak trypanosomosis challenge period and analyzed for packed cell volume (PCV) and parasitaemia. In addition individual body measurements of the sampled animals were taken and the keepers provided some information regarding their animals. Livestock keeper interviews revealed that trypanosomosis was considered a major problem in all areas (95-100%). Almost all Abigar livestock keepers knew how trypanosomosis is transmitted, whereas only 34-52% of the keepers of the other breeds had that knowledge. Most Sheko keepers (75%) knew of trypanotolerance and claimed to have trypanotolerant animals in their own herds. Among the other three breeds the knowledge of trypanotolerance was much less (8-18%). A majority of the keepers were interested in purchasing trypanotolerant animals. PCV was highest among Horro (26.2) and Sheko (25.1) cattle whereas Abigar had the lowest PCV (20.0). Sheko were least infected by trypanosomes (6%) and had the lowest number of trypanocidal treatments per year (1 treatment/animal and year). Abigar cattle were most infected (23%) followed by Gurage (20%) and Horro (17%). Gurage had by far the highest number of treatments per animal and year (24). There were large differences between the number of cattle perceived by the keepers to be infected, and the number detected from blood sampled, among Abigar, Gurage and Horro. Sheko livestock keepers were better at correctly diagnosing trypanosomosis in their animals. It is concluded that Sheko cattle have higher trypanotolerance attributes of the breeds investigated and a better use of this breed could improve cattle health and household welfare in tsetse-infested areas.     

云南省维西县农户养殖现状调查与建议

为了解云南省维西县养殖业的发展现状,采用入户走访与问卷调查的方式,对维西县所辖的10个乡（镇）40个村委会103户农户进行了调查。发现维西县还存在产业小散弱、区域发展不平衡、养殖方式落后、科技支撑力度不够、养殖效率及效益较差等问题。提出今后要结合本地实际合理规划和布局畜牧产业,收集和保护地方特色畜禽遗传资源,积极引进及推广畜禽良种,加大新型经营主体的引进和培育力度,建设技术研发与推广体系等建议。