Challenges and opportunities in mining neuroscience data

Understanding the brain requires a broad range of approaches and methods from the domains of biology, psychology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. The fundamental challenge is to decipher the "neural choreography" associated with complex behaviors and functions, including thoughts, memories, actions, and emotions. This demands the acquisition and integration of vast amounts of data of many types, at multiple scales in time and in space. Here we discuss the need for neuroinformatics approaches to accelerate progress, using several illustrative examples. The nascent field of "connectomics" aims to comprehensively describe neuronal connectivity at either a macroscopic level (in long-distance pathways for the entire brain) or a microscopic level (among axons, dendrites, and synapses in a small brain region). The Neuroscience Information Framework (NIF) encompasses all of neuroscience and facilitates the integration of existing knowledge and databases of many types. These examples illustrate the opportunities and challenges of data mining across multiple tiers of neuroscience information and underscore the need for cultural and infrastructure changes if neuroinformatics is to fulfill its potential to advance our understanding of the brain.     

The neurobiology of learning and memory

Study of the neurobiology of learning and memory is in a most exciting phase. Behavioral studies in animals are characterizing the categories and properties of learning and memory; essential memory trace circuits in the brain are being defined and localized in mammalian models; work on human memory and the brain is identifying neuronal systems involved in memory; the neuronal, neurochemical, molecular, and biophysical substrates of memory are beginning to be understood in both invertebrate and vertebrate systems; and theoretical and mathematical analysis of basic associative learning and of neuronal networks in proceeding apace. Likely applications of this new understanding of the neural bases of learning and memory range from education to the treatment of learning disabilities to the design of new artificial intelligence systems.     

Promoting functional plasticity in the damaged nervous system

Damage to the central and peripheral nervous system often produces lasting functional deficits. A major focus of neuroscience research has been to enhance functional restitution of the damaged nervous system and thereby produce recovery of behavioral or physiological processes. Promising procedures include surgical, physical, and chemical manipulations to reduce scar formation and minimize the disruption of support elements, administration of growth-stimulating substances, tissue grafts to bridge gaps in fiber pathways, and embryonic brain tissue grafts to provide new cells with the potential to generate fiber systems. Two elements are required for functional nervous system repair: (i) neurons with the capacity to extend processes must be present, and (ii) the regenerating neurites must find a continuous, unbroken pathway to appropriate targets through a supportive milieu.     

From the connectome to the synaptome: an epic love story

A major challenge in neuroscience is to decipher the structural layout of the brain. The term "connectome" has recently been proposed to refer to the highly organized connection matrix of the human brain. However, defining how information flows through such a complex system represents so difficult a task that it seems unlikely it could be achieved in the near future or, for the most pessimistic, perhaps ever. Circuit diagrams of the nervous system can be considered at different levels, although they are surely impossible to complete at the synaptic level. Nevertheless, advances in our capacity to marry macro- and microscopic data may help establish a realistic statistical model that could describe connectivity at the ultrastructural level, the "synaptome," giving us cause for optimism.     

Corrections and clarifications

In the Research News article "Pot, heroin unlock new areas for neuroscience" by Marcia Barinaga (18 Dec., p. 1882), the diagram of the molecule anandamide on page 1883 was incorrect. The correct structure appears on page 1948 of the same issue, in figure 1A of the report "Isolation and structure of a brain constituent that binds to the cannabinoid receptor" by W. A. Devane et al. (p. 1946).     

Sequential synaptic excitation and inhibition shape readiness discharge for voluntary behavior

How do animals initiate voluntary behavior? A key phenomenon in neuroscience is the readiness or preparatory neural activity in specific regions of the animal brain. The neurons and synaptic mechanisms mediating this activity are unknown. We found that the readiness discharge is shaped by sequential synaptic excitation and inhibition in the brain of crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). The readiness discharge neurons extended axon collaterals that appeared to activate recurring local interneurons. Therefore, we propose that the readiness discharge is formed by sequential synaptic events within the brain without feedback signals from downstream ganglia. The circuit involved is suited for signal processing for self-generated voluntary initiation of behavior.     

Stochastic generation of regular distributions

A new class of models is proposed to describe the dynamic processes leading to the establishment of regular spatial patterns of structures in natural systems. Simple mathematical arguments are used to compute the saturating densities of the distributions, and these results are verified by computer simulation of model systems.     

Gamma oscillations and object processing in the infant brain

An enduring controversy in neuroscience concerns how the brain "binds" together separately coded stimulus features to form unitary representations of objects. Recent evidence has indicated a close link between this binding process and 40-hertz (gamma-band) oscillations generated by localized neural circuits. In a separate line of research, the ability of young infants to perceive objects as unitary and bounded has become a central focus for debates about the mechanisms of perceptual development. Here we demonstrate that binding-related 40-hertz oscillations are evident in the infant brain around 8 months of age, which is the same age at which behavioral and event-related potential evidence indicates the onset of perceptual binding of spatially separated static visual features.     

嫩江县土壤速效养分差异性分析

利用地统计学和GIS相结合的方法分析了嫩江县土壤速效养分空间异质性。采集土壤表层0~20 cm土样6 900个,采集土地利用类型为耕地,面积约35.6万hm2,进行化验分析和空间分析。结果表明:速效氮、速效磷、速效钾变异系数均在0.1~1.0,为中等变异;土壤速效磷的理论模型均为指数模型;速效氮和速效钾理论模型为球状模型;速效磷、速效钾的C0/(C0+C)分别为49.9%、50.2%,在25%~75%,变量具有中等空间相关性,而速效氮的C0/(C0+C)为79.5%,变量空间相关性较弱,表明土壤养分速效氮受随机性因子影响较大。     

Fast backprojections from the motion to the primary visual area necessary for visual awareness

Much is known about the pathways from photoreceptors to higher visual areas in the brain. However, how we become aware of what we see or of having seen at all is a problem that has eluded neuroscience. Recordings from macaque V1 during deactivation of MT+/V5 and psychophysical studies of perceptual integration suggest that feedback from secondary visual areas to V1 is necessary for visual awareness. We used transcranial magnetic stimulation to probe the timing and function of feedback from human area MT+/V5 to V1 and found its action to be early and critical for awareness of visual motion.     

推进农产品贮藏加工技术产业化

本文阐述了农产品贮藏加工技术产业化的３个主要影响因素：即市场需求性、科技含量、技术通用性。并分析产业化的必要条件，提出产业化开发策略及主要途径：①选题预见性；②生产实际；③高起点研究；④联合攻关；⑤培养人才。呼吁政府及主管部门的重视；以过硬的技术为后盾；积极参与市场竞争；建立良好“售后”服务；探索配合建立中试基地和高新技术园区；兴办科技产业；多种形式的一体化产业模式，在新农业技术革命中推进该领域的     

农户销售模式选择影响因素研究——以海南果农为例

分析农户在农产品销售过程中选择不同销售模式的原因及其影响因素,并用实证数据加以验证,为提高农产品运销效率,增加农民收入提供参考。以海南芒果果农为例,通过抽样调查和实地考察,总结当前芒果果农销售农产品的主要模式,并用计划行为理论分析农户选择销售模式的影响因素;通过问卷调查法收集数据,运用Logit模型验证影响因素。结果发现,教育程度、风险态度、进取心态、获取信息难度、社会认同五个因素对农户选择不同销售模式的行为有显著影响,农户选择"地头市场"模式而不选择"批发市场"模式的主要原因在于对新模式不够了解、惧怕承担风险和受到舆论压力。因此,政府应在农村地区加强宣传教育,扶持农业带头人,以促进新型销售模式的推广。     

上海市不同经营体制下的土壤养分变异特征分析

通过对上海两种经营体制的土壤速效养分含量及变异性分析,结果表明:整个上海地区土壤速效钾均处于较低于的水平,都在临界值附近,而土壤有效锌在分散经营条件下处于中低水平,而在规模经营条件下有富集的趋势。土壤的有效铜含量在两种经营条件下均较高;同不经营体制下的土壤养分变异非管理元素的变异系数差异不大,管理元素在分散经营条件下的土壤养分一般都高于规模经营;规模经营条件下地块内的变异一般都在30%以下,所以,在分散经营条件下实施土壤养分精准管理的迫切性要高于规模经营地区;规模经营体制下和分散经营体制下的土壤速效养分的半方差结构均可用指数模型来描述。大多数土壤速效养分的半方差结构明显,结构性方差占总方差的比例均在50%以上。但分散经营条件下的管理元素相关距均小在规模经营条件下。     

Virtual vineyard for grapevine management purposes: A RFID/GPS application

A method for combining data stored in an RFID microchip implanted inside grapevine plants and a GPS system is described. GIS software was used to register geographic coordinates of detected points, and to develop a specific database in which information useful for the positioning phase are stored. The final product is a digital map accessible via mobile or desktop systems that represents the “virtual vineyard”. In this digital representation, each grapevine plant marked by RFID can be selected, viewed and edited. Free-to-use software was implemented for use by consumers.     

Service-oriented science

New information architectures enable new approaches to publishing and accessing valuable data and programs. So-called service-oriented architectures define standard interfaces and protocols that allow developers to encapsulate information tools as services that clients can access without knowledge of, or control over, their internal workings. Thus, tools formerly accessible only to the specialist can be made available to all; previously manual data-processing and analysis tasks can be automated by having services access services. Such service-oriented approaches to science are already being applied successfully, in some cases at substantial scales, but much more effort is required before these approaches are applied routinely across many disciplines. Grid technologies can accelerate the development and adoption of service-oriented science by enabling a separation of concerns between discipline-specific content and domain-independent software and hardware infrastructure.     

Recording and interpretation of cerebral magnetic fields

Contemporary brain research progresses along two main lines: the microlevel approach explores single neurons and subcellular elements, while macrolevel studies focus on more complex cerebral functions, including behavior. This review presents results obtained mainly in our laboratory by means of an intermediate method, magnetoencephalography (MEG), which reflects cortical activity of neuronal populations at the level fo cytoarchitectonic areas. Because it is completely noninvasive, MEG can be used to study brain functions that are characteristically human.     

不同栽培模式对油茶幼林土壤肥力的影响

为筛选出在生产上具有推广意义的油茶幼林经营模式,通过对油茶幼林套种豇豆、黄豆、绿豆、花生、圆叶决明和羽叶决明6种豆科作物,探讨种植豆科作物对油茶幼林不同深度土壤肥力的影响,并运用灰色关联分析法对不同栽培模式下的土壤理化性质进行相关分析。结果表明,油茶幼林套种豆科作物可有效降低不同深度土层的土壤容重,提高土壤总孔隙度、排水能力和最大持水量,同时不同深度土层有机质、全氮、全钾、全磷、速效氮、速效钾、速效磷的含量均有不同程度提高,其中速效氮含量提高12.18%~32.96%,速效钾含量提高6.58%~56.58%,速效磷含量提高1.95%~78.12%。综合考虑,油茶+圆叶决明模式对改善土壤物理特性和土壤养分的效果最好,其次是油茶+豇豆模式和油茶+羽叶决明模式。     

浅谈API函数在VB开发中的应用

介绍了API函数的调用方法,并用实例讲述了API函数在VB开发中的应用,VB通过调用API函数,能够进入操作系统的核心访问它的许多函数,进行高级编程,开发出具有专业水准的Windows应用程序.     

Agent农业土地变化模型研究进展

农业土地变化是全球变化与可持续研究的热点,当前研究虽取得了长足进展,但仍存在诸多不足,集中表现在对农业土地系统复杂性与动态性的认识不够.近年来,基于Agent的农业土地变化研究(农业ABM/LUCC,Agent-based agricultural land change modeling)逐渐兴起,极大的丰富了传统研究的理论与方法,具体表现在:(1)农业ABM/LUCC将微观层面的人类个体行为整合进土地变化研究框架,有助于更加清楚的认识农业土地系统的“人类-自然”综合复杂性问题.(2)农业ABM/LUCC能够动态表达土地系统变化的内生反馈机制,有助于弥补传统的静态土地变化驱动机制分析的不足.(3)基于ABM/LUCC的农业土地利用格局动态研究是整合“人类-自然”综合研究的关键桥梁,农业ABM/LUCC能够与其他生物地球物理模型或经济模型动态嵌套,使多尺度、多维度综合模型研究成为可能.然而,农业ABM/LUCC研究也存在诸多挑战,如理论研究滞后于应用研究,大尺度应用难以开展,以及农户行为的模拟结果很难得到校验等.     

基于广义背景填充的塔式多相水平集的脑肿瘤分割算法

背景填充技术和Chan-Vese模型的塔式多相水平集算法能够在给定的图像中检测出多个目标,而背景填充技术中采用了固定的填充色彩,故该算法得到的边缘是不可调的.为此提出了一种采用可调填充色的广义背景填充技术,使得轮廓可调以便获得所需边缘.脑肿瘤分割实验表明,采用不同的填充色可以得到不同的脑肿瘤轮廓,有利于临床诊断.