Indigenous knowledge and traditional conservation of hulless barley (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hordeum vulgare</Emphasis>) germplasm resources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la,Yunnan, SW China

Hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare L. s. l.) is the staple food crop of Tibetan communities in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, covering Tibet, Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan and Yunnan provinces in China. Participatory Rural Appraisal methodolgies were employed in twenty-seven villages that were randomly selected in Shangri-la region, or Diqing Prefecture of Yunnan Province to document the ethnobotanical and indigenous knowledge related to the production, diversity, use and conservation of hulless barley. For Tibetans in Shangri-la, the crop has a high socio-cultural value. The genetic diversity of landraces managed by the farmers in Shangri-la is an extremely important germplasm resource. We recorded a total of 54 landraces that are primarily described by farmers based on their cooking quality, growth cycle, color and size of the grains. The ethnobotanical and indigenous knowledge recorded in this study contributes to the understanding of the genetic diversity of hulless barley in Shangri-la and even in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, and in defining appropriate strategies for its conservation on farm.     

Participatory landrace selection for on-farm conservation: An example from the Central Valleys of Oaxaca, Mexico

On-farm conservation is recognized as a key component of a comprehensive strategy to conserve crop genetic resources. A fundamental problem faced by any on-farm conservation project is the identification of crop populations on which efforts should be focused. This paper describes a method to identify a subset of landraces for further conservation efforts from a larger collection representing the diversity found in the Central Valleys of Oaxaca, Mexico. Mexico is a center of origin and diversity for maize (Zea mays L.). The 17 landraces selected from an initial collection of 152 satisfy two criteria. First, they represent the diversity present in the larger collection. Second, they appear to serve the interests of farmers in the region. Data for applying the method were elicited through participatory as well as conventional techniques. They incorporate the complementary perspectives of both men and women members of farm households, and of plant breeders and social scientists.     

The common bean landraces from Basilicata (Southern Italy): an example of integrated approach applied to genetic resources management

Ex situ conservation of genetic resources has contributed to the improvement of several food crops through utilisation of preserved germplasm, but it is not the only approach to safeguard genetic resources. Presently, in situ methods are being examined as effective complementary strategies to preserve diversity along with the dynamic environment. Examples of de facto on farm conservation, a form of in situ, have been described. However, their future is unpredictable without the relief of formal scientific projects or appropriate regulations. Recent European Community regulations have introduced the possibility to attribute marks of origin and quality to local typical products. These marks can be an important support to on farm maintenance of élite landraces of principal crops. In the frame of a collaboration between the Italian gene bank and a farm (of the agricultural research service of Basilicata region), an integrated approach, involving ex situ and on farm conservation, was adopted to safeguard common bean landraces from Basilicata. The main result of this project was the attribution of IGP (indication of geographic provenance), an European Community mark, to some tested landraces.     

Development of a national crop wild relative conservation strategy for Cyprus

Growing research interest in crop wild relatives (CWR) has highlighted their value for crop improvement, particularly to mitigate the impact of climate change and contribute to global food security. As most conservation activities are implemented at national level there is a requirement for each country to develop and implement a national CWR conservation strategy. This will contribute to regional and global CWR conservation actions and so help achieve CBD Aichi Targets 13 of improved genetic conservation of socio-economically important taxa. Cyprus has historically lacked systematic CWR conservation but is rich in CWR diversity being located in the eastern Mediterranean Vavilov centre and abutting the Fertile Crescent. Therefore a more coherent approach to CWR conservation is desirable. From an initial checklist of 1,722 Cypriot CWR taxa, 178 CWR were prioritized and eco geographic data was collated and analysed using GIS techniques. The Troodos and Pafos mountains are CWR hotspots and ten priority sites containing the genetic diversity of 74.7 % of priority CWR taxa were identified. These will form the basis of a national network of in situ genetic reserves and 78 priority CWR taxa that have no accessions in the national Cyprus gene bank are highlighted for collection and ex situ storage.     

Towards the selection of taxa for plant genetic conservation

The signing and ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity has resulted in increased scientific and public interest in the conservation and utilisation of biological diversity. This has in turn triggered the need to develop more effective methodologies to conserve biological diversity for the benefit of all humanity. One of the first factors to be considered when conserving botanical diversity is the efficient and effective selection of the target taxa. The aim of this paper is not to set detailed priorities for the genetic conservation of the plant genetic resources of any particular crop or species complex, but to draw attention to the factors that should be considered when formulating priorities. The factors that are considered important when selecting plant genetic resource targets are: current conservation status; potential economic use; threat of genetic erosion; genetic distinctiveness; ecogeographic distribution; biological importance; cultural importance; cost, feasibility and sustainability; legislation; ethical and aesthetic considerations; and priorities of the conservation agency undertaking the conservation. Each of these factors is discussed in turn. Although it is not possible to provide a single methodology for the selection of plant genetic resource targets at this time, it is hoped that the consideration the factors discussed will make the selection of target taxa more object, make better use of the limited conservation resources and thus enhance the process of genetic conservation as a whole.     

Wheat genetic resources enhancement by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT)

The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) acts as a catalyst and leader in a global maize and wheat innovation network that serves the poor in the developing world. Drawing on strong science and effective partnerships, CIMMYT researchers create, share, and use knowledge and technology to increase food security, improve the productivity and profitability of farming systems and sustain natural resources. This people-centered mission does not ignore the fact that CIMMYT’s unique niche is as a genetic resources enhancement center for the developing world, as shown by this review article focusing on wheat. CIMMYT’s value proposition resides therefore in its use of crop genetic diversity: conserving it, studying it, adding value to it, and sharing it in enhanced form with clients worldwide. The main undertakings include: long-term safe conservation of world heritage of both crop resources for future generations, in line with formal agreements under the 2004 International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, understanding the rich genetic diversity of two of the most important staples worldwide, exploiting the untapped value of crop genetic resources through discovery of specific, strategically-important traits required for current and future generations of target beneficiaries, and development of strategic germplasm through innovative genetic enhancement. Finally, the Center needs to ensure that its main products reach end-users and improve their livelihoods. In this regard, CIMMYT is the main international, public source of wheat seed-embedded technology to reduce vulnerability and alleviate poverty, helping farmers move from subsistence to income-generating production systems. Beyond a focus on higher grain yields and value-added germplasm, CIMMYT plays an “integrative” role in crop and natural resource management research, promoting the efficient use of water and other inputs, lower production costs, better management of biotic stresses, and enhanced system diversity and resilience.     

Centres of Crop Diversity and/or Origin, Genetically Modified Crops and Implications for Plant Genetic Resources Conservation

The concept of centres of crop diversity and/or origin of agriculture is briefly reviewed. The conservation status of crop genetic resources, either ex situ or in situ, cultivated or wild, has been assessed for species of the Central American and Mexican centre, demonstrating that that region is indeed one of the important centres of crop diversity for human kind. Furthermore, biotechnological developments with regard to the creation and spread of genetically modified crops have been analyzed. The likelihood of unintentional introgression of genetically modified traits into conventional seed lots, crops as well as into germplasm collections have been assessed. Related biosafety measures as well as the possible implications of intellectual property rights on transgenic crops and/or genes are being discussed vis-a-vis the possible implications they might have for germplasm management. The Central American crop genetic resources situation has been used as a “case study” to illustrate the potential impact of the spreading of GM varieties on the genetic diversity in genebanks and farmers’ fields and the need for effective and efficient conservation efforts. Conservation management strategies and practices are being proposed of mitigate the potential negative impact of GM crops on the conservation efforts.     

The diversity and sustainable development of crop genetic resources in the Lancang River Valley

This paper reviews the status of crop genetic resources in Yunnan province of China from 1978 to 1999. Results are presented of same research in the field of the diversity of cultivated and wild crop. Yunnan is one of the centre of origin or genetic diversity of more than 200 cultivated and wild crops. There are over 500 cultivated plants which account for over 80% of the total in China and more than 650 species of wild crops. In addition, there are more than 440 species of main wild flowers. According to our recently researches there are abundant species, subspecies and varieties of crop genetic resources in Yunnan Province. The Lancang River Valley is the richest genetic diversity centre of rice, maize, wheat, barley, buckwheat, legumes, ramie, sugarcane, vegetable, tea, actinidia and so on. For example, there are 59 varieties (including all varieties of Oryza sativa L. in China) in 5933 accession of Yunnan indigenous rice. The Lancang River Valley is one of the centre for genetic diversity of rice resources and a rich region for elite and rare rice resources of Yunnan, too. In order to protect the highly endangered crop genetic resources in the Lancang River Valley, it is necessary and very important to set up a collection, conservation, utilization and research system, enhancing their protection and utilization, in situ- and ex situ-conservation, farm management and sustainable production.     

Towards a methodology for on-farm conservation of plant genetic resources

The signing of the Convention on Biological Diversity at the ``Earth Summit' in 1992, its ratification and its subsequent entering into force have highlighted the need for an approach to biodiversity conservation that employs both ex situ and in situ techniques in a complementary manner. Though much research has focused on ex situ techniques, less progress has been made in developing methodologies for the conservation of genetic diversity in situ. The definition of in situ conservation used in the Convention on Biological Diversity encompasses two distinct processes: conservation of wild species in genetic reserves and of crops on-farm. Of these two, the latter, where the genetic diversity of crop land races is conserved within traditional farming systems, has been the less studied and remains less well understood. While there are still relatively few practical examples of on-farm genetic resources conservation, most genetic diversity of immediate and potential use to plant breeders is found among land races, and there is evidence that it is being rapidly eroded. This paper attempts to set on-farm conservation within the context of plant genetic resource conservation as a whole, to introduces a possible generalised model for the conservation of genetic diversity on-farm and to promote debate around the science of on-farm conservation.     

The original features of rice (Oryza sativa L.) genetic diversity and the importance of within-variety diversity in the highlands of Madagascar build a strong case for in situ conservation

In situ conservation of crop genetic resources is widely recommended but, as yet, no methods have been developed to rank the genetic entities to preserve and the social organisations to involve. The highlands of Madagascar have been identified as a key site for rice, Oryza sativa, genetic diversity. To define conservation strategies, we performed multidisciplinary analysis of rice genetic diversity and factors shaping its distribution in the target region. Along with the indica and japonica rice subspecies of O. sativa, we confirmed the presence of an atypical rice group with a preferential habitat of 1,250–1,750 m. Spatial distribution of genetic diversity was uneven. The most determining factor of this unevenness was the altitude authorising or not the presence of different rice cropping systems and the associated types of varieties. Village and individual farmer’s wealth also had a determining role on the amount of rice diversity they hosted. While molecular variance between villages in a given interval of altitude represented 16 % of the total variance, within-village variance represented more than 75 % of the total, and within-farm variance 70 % of within-village variance. This hierarchical distribution of molecular variance suggests that a small number of samples per scale (altitude interval, village and farm) could allow to capture most of the genetic diversity observed. However, within-variety diversity was also important making ex situ conservation strategies impractical and costly. Implications of the within-variety diversity are discussed in terms of adaptive advantages, evolutionary processes, and need for in situ conservation.     

Genetic erosion of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) in the centre of diversity, Ethiopia

The Ethiopian region is characterised by a wide range of agro-climatic conditions, which accounted for the enormous resources of agro-biodiversity that exist in the country. The most important of these resources is the immense genetic diversity of the various crop plants in the country. Of these, one of the most on farm genetically diverse crops is sorghum. Since the advent of formal breeding in particular after green revolution, genetic diversity of most crops has been threatened worldwide. In order to assess on farm genetic erosion (GE), various research methodologies were employed. These were focused group interviews with 360 farmers, on farm monitoring and participation with 120 farmers, key informant interviews with 60 farmers and development agents, and semi-structured interviews with 250 farmers. Besides, diversity fairs were done with over 1200 farmers. Notwithstanding the complexity of assessing GE, it was assessed by various methods; namely, by temporal method (comparing 1960 and 2000 collections), area method, and semi-structured interview method at individual, community or wereda level and causes of varietal loss from other various perspectives. Farmers perceived GE as the reduced importance of the variety as indicated by lower proportion in the varietal portfolio. The five most important factors for varietal loss at individual farmers’ level were reduced benefit from the varieties, drought, Khat expansion, reduced land size and introduction of other food crops respectively. GE was not affected by wealth groups and ecological regions. Farmers do not make simple replacement as a strategic mechanism for genetic resources management. GE at regional level was quantified by temporal and spatial method. There was a complementation not rivalry between farmer varieties (FVs) and improved varieties (IVs). The whole process of GE is explained by three models, namely: Bioecogeographic enhanced genetic erosion model, Farmer induced genetic erosion model and Farmer-cum-bioecogeographic genetic erosion model. As aforementioned, sorghum genetic erosion behaviour is completely different from other food crops such as tetraploid wheat. The prediction in the late seventies that complete erosion of FVs by IVs by the end of the eighties, the principle of GE that competition between IVs and FVs, favours the former and results in the replacement of the latter is not valid in the context of sorghum in Ethiopia. Hence, maintenance of the on farm genetic diversity of sorghum is a reality but GE is rhetoric.     

Genetic basis for folk classification of oca (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Oxalis tuberosa</Emphasis> Molina; Oxalidaceae): implications for research and conservation of clonally propagated crops

Clonally propagated crops exhibit great diversity and are integral components of global and regional food systems. At the same time, little is known about the mechanisms that generate diversity within clonal crop species, and this diversity is increasingly threatened by economic, environmental, and social change. Research addressing the genetic basis for folk classification of clonal crops can address both of these challenges. Here, we carry out such research through a case study of the Andean tuber crop, oca (Oxalis tuberosa Molina). We employ ethnobotanical and molecular genetic methods to assess the congruence in partitioning of 216 oca accessions with respect to 26 folk taxa and with respect to 31 genetic clones. We find that the greatest number of folk taxa (11) correspond to single, unique genetic clones, but we also identify two instances of single folk taxa comprising multiple genetic clones and two instances of multiple folk taxa comprising single, shared genetic clones. We discuss the potential roles of different diversity-generating mechanisms, such as somaclonal variation and sexual reproduction, underlying these varied forms of congruence in order to inspire more directed research on this topic. We also discuss the implications of our findings on in situ and ex situ conservation work, in which practitioners often approximate crop genetic diversity by counting folk taxa. Ultimately, we argue that efforts to understand and conserve clonal crop diversity will be most effective when both folk classification and its genetic basis are considered together.     

Analysis of indigenous production methods and farm-based biodiversity of amochi (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Arisaema schimperianum</Emphasis> Schott) in two sub-zones of Southern Ethiopia

For the first time we report that diverse types of Arisaema schimperianum Schott locally called amochi, are grown and managed as an off-season food crop in Southern Ethiopia. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and formal survey studies on 204 households were conducted over two consecutive years (2003–2004) in Chencha and Dita sub zones of Southern Ethiopia, to identify indigenous production methods and farm based biodiversity of amochi. Amochi is propagated from seed tubers and tuber parts left in the soil from the preceding harvest and grow during the dry season, February to June. Average share of proportion in the annual household consumption from amochi tubers was 9% and 4% for Chencha and Dita respectively. Uncooked amochi is irritating in contact to skin and mouth. Fifteen amochi types were identified in Dita and 12 in Chencha. They differ in the level of irritation, maturity and yield. Rich farmers with large family size as a working force, large farm size to support larger number of livestock that is source of farmyard manure, have farms with larger diversity of amochi than their poor counterparts, suggesting that its diversity is influenced by house hold characteristics and favoured under relatively fertile soil conditions. In both sub zones women had better experience in identifying amochi types than men. Further study is needed to identify chemical contents; and genetic variation using morphologic and molecular traits, in order to develop a strategy to assess and utilise the existing genetic diversity.     

The European seed legislation on conservation varieties: focus, implementation, present and future impact on landrace on farm conservation

After a brief presentation of the European Directives on seed marketing of conservation varieties, data relative to their implementation status are given and discussed in relation to on farm conservation of landraces. Although generally aimed to ensure in situ conservation and the sustainable use of plant genetic resources, the Directives focus on seed production and marketing instead of genetic resource conservation per se. At present, their application has only partially favoured the registration of landraces maintained on farm or preserved in ex situ collections. They can be estimated in thousands in Europe, while only a few landrace with a verified status (51 out of a total of 184 conservation varieties) are presently included in the Common Catalogue. Reasons for this scarce registration are discussed. The European Directives on seed marketing of conservation varieties are a tool to promote on farm conservation of landraces that should be used to a greater extent than at present. Registration of landraces should be strongly and principally promoted by public bodies as a measure to give access to the genetic resources, preserve them on the long term and favour the economic profit of the farmers maintaining them.     

A checklist of the cultivated plants of Ustica (Italy)

The small island of Ustica north of Sicily has been investigated for its plant genetic resources in 1997. A checklist of the agri- and horticultural crop plants comprises more than 110 species. Some of the species show still a large infraspecific variation but genetic erosion could be also found. Rare material has been collected for the conservation in genebanks.The considerable agrobiodiversity and the ongoing evolution as evidenced by introgression from wild relatives to several cultivated species and vice versa suggest the development of an on-farm conservation for the island. Nature protection and traditional farm management should develop an integrated approach.     

Molecular markers for promoting agro-biodiversity conservation: a case study from Italy. How cowpea landraces were saved from extinction

Landraces (LRs) are crop populations that are locally grown by farmers; they have a strategic role to play in rebuilding healthy and complex agro-ecosystems, but are at risk of extinction. This paper outlines how some LRs were rescued with the support of modern techniques such as molecular markers. Cowpea LRs from Umbria, Italy, were initially characterized for morphological, organoleptic and genetic traits and reintroduced among farmers. These activities led to an expansion of the area under LR based cowpea cultivation and increased farmers’ income. To encourage further LR cultivation a request for the Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) status has been promoted. Investigations were carried out to determine if it is possible to certify that the product actually belongs to the traditional agricultural and cultural context of the cultivation area. The genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships among local LRs, other LRs, commercial varieties, and other taxa were investigated with five AFLP markers. Although genetic diversity is limited, genetic analysis showed that Umbrian cowpea LRs can be distinguished from commercial varieties, LRs from abroad and other taxa. There is a tight phylogenetic connection among Umbrian LRs. These data confirmed the available historical and sociological data and were included in the PDO specification. AFLP markers can be used to monitor the origin of seed lots that are on the market; this protects the rights of both consumers and farmers. This case study could be a resource for planning activities for the future on-farm conservation of other LRs in different countries.     

The Dynamics of on-farm Management of Sorghum in Ethiopia: Implication for the Conservation and Improvement of Plant Genetic Resources

On-farm conservation of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture has received strong support worldwide in recent years. It has been justified on appealing assumptions: it complements ex situ conservation, allows co-evolutionary interaction of host–pathogens and crop–weed complexes, and involves local knowledge systems. This article illustrates how on-farm conservation being set for its sake is extremely difficult under farmers’ dynamic management of plant genetic resources based on sorghum. The dynamics of their management could be explained by continued introduction, displacement, loss and maintenance of aboriginal landraces that have distinct functional attributes, patch-occupancy and relative abundance profiles. Such management and hence the dynamic landrace demography has largely been triggered by co-evolving biophysical stresses, spatial and seasonal variations. The best viable alternative to support farmers’ management of genetic resources is to link conservation to crop improvement both to enhance on-farm genetic diversity and make the biophysical environment a comfortable home for the plant genotypes.     

Genetic diversity of anchote (Coccinia abyssinica (Lam.) Cogn.) from Ethiopia as revealed by ISSR markers

Anchote (Coccinia abyssinica) is plant endemic in Ethiopia with a high calcium content grown for its edible tuberous roots. In spite of its importance as food security crop, there is no information available on molecular genetic diversity of this crop. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess genetic diversity within and among 12 populations of anchote using ISSR markers. Using nine ISSR primers, a total of 87 scorable bands was generated of which 74 were polymorphic. Within population diversity based on polymorphic bands ranged from 13.8 to 43.53 % with a mean of 33.05 %, Nei’s genetic diversity of 0.04–0.156 with a mean of 0.12, Shannon information index of 0.07–0.23 with a mean of 0.175 and analysis of molecular variation (AMOVA) of 51.4 % were detected. With all diversity parameters, the highest diversity was obtained from Gimbi, Bedele and Ale populations, whilst the lowest was from Manna. AMOVA showed a 48.56 % between populations variability and significantly lower than that of within population variation. Population differentiation with F_ST was 48.56 %. From Jaccard’s pairwise similarity coefficient, Decha and Nedjo were most related populations exhibiting 0.76 similarity and Manna and Nedjo were the most distantly related populations with similarity of 0.52. The only pentanucliotide primer used in the study, Primer 880 (GGAGA)3, showed a unique band in some individuals that appeared to be associated with morphological quantitative traits (lowest seed number, high protein content, largest fruit size and smallest vine length). Illubabor and Gimbi populations exhibited highest genetic diversity so that the populations should be considered as the primary sites in designing conservation areas for this crop.     

Farmers' practices, metapopulation dynamics, and conservation of agricultural biodiversity on-farm: a case study of sorghum among the Duupa in sub-sahelian Cameroon

In many traditionally managed agroecosystems, populations of domesticated plants maintain high levels of genetic diversity. The threat of erosion of this diversity is a current conservation concern, motivating studies of how diversity can be maintained by in situ conservation measures. Precisely how the biological traits of plants and the cultural practices of farmers act on fundamental evolutionary forces - drift, migration, selection, and mutation - to create and maintain crop plant diversity has been little investigated in detail. We develop some elements of the framework required for studying such biocultural interactions, focusing on one component of management: farmers' decisions on what to plant, and the structure of germplasm exchange among farmers. We illustrate the approach with a study of Duupa farmers in northern Cameroon. Our results suggest that sorghum populations managed by the Duupa function like source-sink metapopulations. Fields of older farmers, larger and containing a greater number of varieties, act as sources, whereas fields of younger farmers act as sinks, becoming sources as their owners mature. In each field, seeds for sowing are selected from a small number of plants. The frequent exchange of germplasm among fields may counteract the genetic bottlenecks associated with the small number of genitors within each field. Identifying key processes and key individuals should facilitate the design of in situ conservation measures to maintain crop plant diversity against the threat of genetic erosion.     

Maize (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Zea mays</Emphasis> L.) management in Yaxcaba,Yucatan, during the twentyfirst century’s first decade is consistent with an overall loss of landrace diversity in southeast Mexico

The status of genetic resource conservation in centers of crop diversity remains disputed. Recent case-study findings of persistent maize diversity in Yaxcaba, Yucatan, a municipality in southeast Mexico, have raised questions on earlier reports of widespread losses across the crop’s center of diversity in Mexico. We break down patterns in maize varietal richness in southeast Mexico to show that temporal trends in Yaxcaba are subsumed under spatial variation in this broader region and consistent with an overall loss of diversity. Persistence of diversity in Yaxcaba can be explained by conditions that allowed subsistence farmers to continue sowing land even as maize prices dropped, but these conditions may be rare in Mexico and likely to change. Yaxcaba emerges as a rare community of exceptional diversity from which valuable policy lessons can be drawn. We find that gaps and omissions in the Mexican Government’s strategy for maize conservation have excluded Yaxcaba and likely resulted in an ineffective intervention elsewhere in the Peninsula. An integrated-systems perspective should help us develop a coherent strategy for resource conservation and climate adaptation based on more efficient and equitable instruments.