Accumulation and distribution of pp′-DDT and related compounds in an apple orchard. II. Residues in trees and herbage

DDT residues in or on the roots and leaves of the herbage and the roots, bark, leaves and fruit of the trees are given for an apple orchard sprayed annually (1953–1969). The distribution of DDT in both the grass and the grass roots was in circular areas of residues, with maximum values at each trunk and decreasing radially to each alley. Of the spray applied at the green cluster stage 80% was deposited on the grass sward and very little, if any, directly on the soil surface. The pp′-DDT content of the grass fell rapidly with successive mowings (from which the cuttings remained in situ) from 400 μg/g at spraying to 2 μg/g after nine months. 33 g/ha pp′-DDT was found in the herbage roots (0.87% of the total residues in the soil). The residues in the bark (87.5 g/ha) were much lower than expected after 13 years spray application. There were increased amounts of pp′-DDE, pp′-TDE and pp′-TDEE relative to pp′-DDT, indicating some breakdown on the bark, but the chief losses were attributed to volatilisation and to removal by wind and rain. The residue content of root bark varied from 3 μg/g near the emerging trunk to 0.05 μg/g at a depth of 90 cm. The pp′-DDT content of leaves at leaf fall rose from <1 ng/g after a single spring spray to 8.33 μg/g following an additional spray in late June. There was a large loss of DDT from the canopy between the June spray and leaf fall (440–480 g/ha down to 25 g/ha), attributed to volatilisation. The amount of pp′-DDT on the fruit, after a single spray, was 3 ng/g fresh weight (80.9 mg/ha out of a total of 1.0–1.5 kg/ha used).     

Distribution and breakdown of DDT in orchard soil

Amounts of DDT and its breakdown products were determined in soil in an apple orchard in Herefordshire. Samples were taken for a number of years (1972–79) after use of the insecticide in the orchard had ceased in 1969. The results were compared with those obtained in an investigation of the same orchard in 1968. From 1968 to 1979, soil residues of pp′-DDT, p′--DDT and pp′--TDE decreased gradually whereas those of pp′--DDE increased, and there were linear relationships between log (concentration) and time. The calculated time for 50% decrease in concentration (Dt₅₀) was 11.7 years for pp′--DDT, 3.3 years for pp′--TDE and 7.1 years for op′--DDT; the time for doubling the concentration for pp′--DDE was 9.1 years. Regression analysis on the two major components (pp′--DDT+pp′--DDE) indicated that the total amount (2.7 mg kg^?1) was not decreasing with time. It was concluded that during a post-spray era, the breakdown of pp′--DDT to pp′--DDE was a significant feature of the persistence of DDT, and that, in contrast to the findings of other workers who sampled when DDT was being used, there were no losses by volatilisation. There was an exponential decrease in the amount of DDT residues with increasing soil depth and approximately 90% was found in the top 10 cm of the undisturbed soil profile.     

Residues of atrazine, simazine, linuron and diuron after repeated annual applications in a peach orchard

Annual applications of the herbicides atrazine, simazine, linuron and diuron at 45 kg/ha were made to the same plots for 9 consecutive years from 1963 to 1971 in a peach (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch.) orchard located on sandy loam soil near Harrow, Ontario. Soil samples from these plots were collected in late October for the last 3 years (1969–1971) and trees were cut down in December, 1969. Herbicide residues were determined by bioassays based on the fresh and dry weight of oats (Avena sativa L.) and in one year results were confirmed by chemical analysis. Significant accumulation of herbicides was not observed. The maximum residue levels measured in October over the 3 years of sampling were 7′3 kg/ha for diuron, 3–8 kg/ha for linuron, 1–6 kg/ha for simazine and 04 kg/ha for atrazine in the top 15 cm of the soil profile. Simazine and atrazine showed a rapid decrease in amount after treatment but diuron and linuron were degraded more slowly. Measurable residues of all herbicides were confined to the upper 15 cm of the soil profile and the majority of herbicide remained in the 0–5-cm soil layer. Oats were planted in the orchard plots from 1972 to 1974 to follow the disappearance of the herbicides. All herbicides caused highly significant yield decreases in 1972, atrazine causing the least (38%) and diuron the greatest (86%) reductions. Diuron reduced the yield of oats in 1973 and caused a highly significant decrease in the weight of young oat plants in 1974.     

Organochlorine residues in young herons from the upper Mississippi River-1976.

Chicks of great blue herons (Ardea herodias) from four heronaries located near South St. Paul, Royalton, and Wabasha, Minnesota, and La Crosse, Wisconsin, were analyzed for organochlorines, Highest mean wet-weight concentrations, 6.43 ppm PCBs. 1.31 ppm DDE, and 1.90 ppm sigma DDT, were found in the South St. Paul chicks. Among chicks from the other three heronries, most levels were similar, but were significantly lower than levels in South St. Paul chicks. Lowest mean organochlorine levels, 0.37 ppm DDE, 0.38 ppm sigma DDT, and 0.22 ppm PCBs, were found in chicks from Royalton. All birds from South St. Paul and La Crosse contained residues of DDT and TDE whereas only one of the 10 birds from Royalton contained DDT and one contained TDE residues. Five of the 12 birds from Wabasha contained DDT; eight contained TDE. Except for PCB residues in La Crosse heron chicks, the rate of organochlorine residue accumulation in the birds was generally less than the rate of dilution caused by growth.     

Excretion of DDT residues into milk of the Indian buffalo,Bubalus bubalis (L.) after oral and dermal exposure

Three groups of buffaloes were fed with 20, 100 and 400 mg of p,p′-DDT in their daily rations. The DDT residues in the milk fat of the treated animals showed an initial rapid rise but soon attained a dose-dependent equilibrium. The transfer coefficient of DDT residues in milk at ‘plateau’ levels showed an average value of about 12%. Half-life values for the rate of decline of DDT residues during the post-dosing period were computed according to a two-open-compartment model. Dermal application of p,p′-DDT to buffaloes also resulted in excretion of a significant amount of its residues in milk. TDE was the predominant compound present in milk when buffaloes had ingested p,p′-DDT, whilst p,p′-DDT itself was present in greater quantity than its metabolites when animals were treated dermally.     

Comparative excretion of DDT analogues into milk of indian buffalo,Bubalus bubalis L. following oral administration

Four groups of Indian buffaloes were fed daily with 25 mg of p,p′-DDT p,p′-TDE p,p′-DDE or o,p′-DDT for 100 days. Milk was analysed for organochlorine residues during this period and also for 100 days after pesticide administration had been discontinued. For the period showing ‘plateau level’ residues, 17.2% of p,p′-DDE, 17% of p,p′-TDE, 14% of p,p′-DDT as p,p′-DDT (3.5%); p,p′-TDE (10.5%); 3.2% of p,p′-DDT as o,p′-DDT (1.3%) and o,p'-TDE (1.9%) of their administered amounts were excreted in the milk. Since these compounds were excreted at different rates, the residue levels in the milk expected from a given feed would depend on their concentration and proportional distribution in the feed. The maximum tolerable content of DDT analogues in feed was derived to be 0.1 mg kg^?1 (dry weight basis) by using the maximum accumulation coefficient and incorporation of the necessary safety margin. It is concluded that Indian buffaloes fed with rations contaminated with a total of DDT analogues below this limit will yield milk of acceptable quality. Following the termination of feeding with contaminated rations, the elimination of p,p′-DDE in the milk took the longest time and that of o,p′-DDT the shortest. These results suggest that the time required for the initial high residue concentration to decline to less than the legal limit would be determined by the relative amounts of DDE, TDE and DDT in the milk, after elimination of the potent source of contamination.     

Pesticide residues in foodstuffs in Great Britain: XIII.—Organochlorine residues in cereals,pulses and nuts

Results are presented for the determination of organochlorine insecticide residues in grain, pulses and nuts sampled on arrival in Britain during the 2½ years up to June 1969. BHC was detected in nearly every sample but the general level was low, most samples containing less than 0·1 ppm. DDT was found less frequently. Very few samples contained more than 1 ppm of either insecticide. DDE in trace amounts was found in about 10% of the samples of grain and nuts and TDE was found in one sample of grain. The only other organochlorine compounds detected were aldrin in one sample of pulses and hexachlorobenzene in 7 samples of wheat.     

Residues of DDT in cottonseed after spraying with DDT and torbidan

DDT at 1.12 and 2.24 kg/ha a.i. and Torbidan at 5 and 10 litre formulation/ha (1 and 2 kg DDT/ha) were sprayed five times on cotton over a period of 15 weeks. Seeds from the first pick of the crop were found to contain as residues pp′-DDT and pp′-DDE [1,1-dichloro-2,2-di- (4-chlorophenyl)ethylene]. The highest residue level (0.783 parts/10⁶) was found in seeds from Torbidan 10 litre/ha treatment.     

Organochlorine residues in fish, water, and sediment of American Falls Reservoir, Idaho, 1974.

Organochlorine residues of TDE, DDE, and PCBs as high as 1.96, 2.79, and 28.74 microgram/kg, respectively, have been found in sediments of American Falls Reservoir, Idaho. Residues of TDE, DDE, and dieldrin in the flesh of sport fish were as high as 52.3, 67.2, and 160.4 microgram/kg, respectively. Maximum organochlorine residue levels found in sucker taken in the commercial fishery were 1.1 mg PCBs/kg, 781.7 microgram TDE/kg, and 82.1 microgram DDE/kg.     

Nationwide residues of organochlorines in wings of adult mallards and black ducks, 1972-73.

Organochlorine residues in wings of adult mallards and black ducks were monitored during the 1972-73 hunting season. DDE, DDT, DDD, dieldrin, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's) were present in all samples. Mallard wings from Alabama contained the highest mean levels of DDE, DDT, DDD, dieldrin, and PCB's. Mallards and black ducks from the Atlantic Flyway and mallards from the Pacific Flyway contained significantly lower DDE residues than in 1969-70. Black ducks from the Atlantic Flyway contained significantly less dieldrin than in 1969-70, and mallards in the Central and Pacific Flyways contained significantly lower levels of PCB's. As in 1969-70, DDE residues were lowest in the Central Flyway and highest in the Atlantic Flyway. The average PCB level remained unchanged in the Atlantic Flyway but was higher in the Mississippi Flyway than in 1969-70, probably because of the unusually high levels in Alabama samples. All organochlorine residues in black ducks from the Atlantic Flyway significantly correlated. DDE concentrations in mallards from the Atlantic Flyway significantly correlated with those of DDT, DDD, and PCB's.     

Blood organochlorine pesticide levels in Virginia residents.

This study attempts to establish 1972 baseline levels for 31 organochlorine pesticides and industrial chemicals in postmortem human whole blood in Virginia. These pesticides and industrial chemicals have been detected previously in other parts of the food chain and environment. In the present study DDT and its metabolites, DDE and TDE, were detected most frequently and at highest levels. DDT and DDE tended to appear more frequently as people grew older although TDE levels remained constant. Dieldrin and lindane showed peak levels in the middle age group. Analyzing distribution of pesticides in blood by sex showed that females had higher levels of lindane and dieldrin and males had higher levels of DDT, DDE, and TDE. Analyzing racial distribution showed blacks with higher levels of DDT, TDE, and DDE and indicated little difference from whites for lindane and dieldrin. Higher levels were found in Richmond and Norfolk than in the Fairfax and Roanoke regions.     

Nationwide residues of organochlorine compounds in wings of adult mallards and black ducks, 1979-80

Organochlorine residues in wings of adult mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and black ducks (Anas rubripes) were monitored nationwide from birds harvested during the 1979-80 hunting season. DDE residues were found in all samples. DDT residues had declined from levels reported in 1976 on a flyway basis but the decline was significant (P less than 0.05) only in the Pacific Flyway. Levels of DDT, DDE, TDE, and dieldrin were low on a flyway basis, and all but DDE declined significantly (P less than 0.05) in the percent occurrence. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) levels were lower in mallard wings from all flyways compared with 1976 data, but percent occurrence had significantly (P less than 0.05) increased. Pools from Alabama and New Mexico continued to show higher DDE residues than pools from other areas.     

Residues of tetrachlorvinphos and its breakdown products on treated crops. III.—Residues on a range of field crops

A wide range of crops including top fruit, cereals, brassicas, root vegetables and cotton from field trials in several countries in 1965, 1966, 1967 and 1968 have been analysed for residues of tetrachlorvinphos (Gardona, trans-homer of dimethyl 1-(2′,4′,5′-trichlorophenyl)-2-chlorovinyl phosphate) foliar insecticide, its isomer and its potential breakdown products. The residues under field conditions were mainly of tetrachlorvinphos, its isomer and 1-(2′,4′,5′-trichlorophenyl)ethan-1-ol in free and sugar-conjugated forms. Tetrachlorvinphos was not unduly persistent on the crops and its initial half-life varied from 2 days on cabbage, to 7 days on potato foliage and to 12 days on pears (after the last of five applications). From one week after the final application onwards the highest residues of tetrachlorvinphos observed were on olives (1 ppm after 18 days after a single application of 0·1 % active material), maize leaf (2·8 ppm at 9·5 weeks after the last of two applications at 3 kg/ha), and cabbage (1·9 ppm at 12 days after the last of three applications at 0·5 kg/ha). The maximum residues of the alcohol in the free form were 3·2 ppm on maize leaf at 8 weeks from the second application at 1·5 kg/ha and in the conjugated form were 1·0 ppm on cauliflowers at 6 days after the last of four applications at 0·5 kg/ha.     

Pesticide residues in foodstuffs in Great Britain: Organochlorine residues in imported cereals,nuts, pulses and animal foodstuffs

Results are presented for the determination of organochlorine insecticide residues in imported cereals, nuts, pulses and animal foodstuffs for the 2 year period July 1969 to June 1971. BHC was found in all but four of the 248 samples examined but only in 25 (10%) did the level exceed 0.5 mg/kg. DDT was found in 39% of the samples of which three samples of wheat contained more than 1 mg/kg and two samples of cottonseed cake more than 0.5 mg/kg. The other commodities sampled had less than 0.2 mg/kg. DDE was detected in trace amounts in 26 % of the samples examined.     

Organochlorine residues and shell thicknesses in eggs of the clapper rail, common gallinule, purple gallinule, and limpkin (class Aves), eastern and southern United States, 1972-74

Organochlorine residues and shell thicknesses were surveyed in eggs of the clapper rail (Rallus longirostris), purple gallinule (Porphyrula martinica), common gallinule (Gallinula chloropas), and limpkin (Aramus guarauna) from the eastern and southern United States. Clapper rail eggs were collected during 1972-73 in New Jersey, Virginia, and South Carolina. During 1973-74, gallinule eggs were collected in Florida, South Carolina, and Louisiana, and limpkin eggs were collected in Florida. Egg contents were analyzed for residues of organochlorine pesticides, including DDT, TDE, DDE, dieldrin, mirex, heptachlor epoxide, oxychlordane, cis-chlordane (and/or trans-nonachlor), cis-nonachlor, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), toxaphene, and endrin, and for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Shell thicknesses of recent eggs of these species were compared with archival eggs that had been collected before 1947. With the exception of the limpkin, the majority of eggs analyzed contained residues of p,p'-DDE and PCBs. Geometric means ranged from 0.10 ppm to 1.3 ppm. Small amounts (less than 1.0 ppm) of mirex, dieldrin, cis-chlordane (and/or trans-nonachlor), TDE, and DDT were detected in a few eggs. No evidence of eggshell thinning was found for any of the species studied. DDE residues in clapper rail eggs were higher in New Jersey and Virginia than in South Carolina.     

Influence of methyl bromide soil fumigation method on fungicidal efficacy and bromide residues

Highest inorganic bromine residues (30 ppm) were found when soil was fumigated with liquid methyl bromide (MB) introduced by conventional means into evaporating dishes. With preheated (vaporized) MB or injection of MB/chloropicrin (CP) mixtures, bromide concentrations were reduced by 50%. They were uniform throughout the soil (0 to 60 cm) except after MB/CP injection, when larger residues were found in the 30-60 cm layer. Leaching with 2000 m^p3/ha (20 cm) of water always reduced bromide content to 7.5 and 10 ppm at the 0-30 and 30-60 cm depth, respectively. Organic amendments to soils substantially increased bromide levels up to 118 ppm, most of which was found in the upper soil layers; two teachings with 2000 m^p3 /ha water were required to return the soils to their normal state.Sclerotium rolfsii andFusarium oxysporum f. sp.dianthi cultures buried in soil were eliminated from the upper 30 cm with MB applied either conventionally or preheated. At 50 cm, 500 kg/ha of the preheated gas was superior to 1000 kg/ha of the cold gas. All MB fumigations suppressed carnation flower yields compared with CP alone but were superior to no treatment. After leaching, MB-fumigated soils yielded the highest number of flowers.     

Studies on the induction of rat uterine ornithine decarboxylase by DDT analogs. I. Comparison with estradiol-17β activity

The effect of DDT analogs and estradiol-17β on uterine ornithine decarboxylase activity in the immature intact and ovariectomized rat was studied. Pretreatment with various doses of o,p′DDT [1-(o-chlorophenyl)-1-(p-chlorophenyl)-2,2,2-trichloroethane] or estradiol-17β caused a marked increase in the specific activity of ornithine decarboxylase in the 20,000g supernatant fraction of uterine homogenates but not in liver homogenates. Doses as low as 0.5 mg of o,p′DDT or 0.002 μg of estradiol-17β stimulated uterine ornithine decarboxylase activity in the ovariectomized rat. The peaks of activity after treatment with o,p′ DDT and estradiol-17β occurred at 6 and 5 hr, respectively. The level of ornithine decarboxylase activity in untreated groups was consistently lower in ovariectomized rats than in intact immature animals. Treatment with o,p′ DDT (10 mg/100 g body weight) of ovariectomized and intact immature rats demonstrated at 131-fold and an about 20-fold increase in uterine ornithine decarboxylase activity, respectively. Treatment of ovariectomized rats with cycloheximide or actinomycin D effectively blocked the increase in ornithine decarboxylase caused by o,p′ DDT. Similar results were obtained with cycloheximide in the intact immature rat. Animals subjected to both adrenalectomy and ovariectomy demonstrated an increase in ornithine decarboxylase activity when treated with either estradiol-17β or o,p′ DDT. Dose-response curves obtained for estradiol-17β and o,p′ DDT suggest a similar mechanism of action for the two compounds. Graphic analysis of the dose-response curves for estradiol-17β and o,p′ DDT demonstrated an ED₅₀ of 0.038 μg/100 g body weight and 1.8 mg/100 g body weight, respectively. The examination of various DDT analogs in intact and ovariectomized animals showed that o,p′ DDT was the most potent inducer of ornithine decarboxylase. The order of decreasing potency of DDT analogs was o,p′ DDT, o,p′ DDD. p,p′ DDT, p,p′ DDD, and p,p′ DDE.     

Bestrijdingsproeven tegen enkele voor koolzaad schadelijke insecten

Samenvatting Gedurende de laatste twee jaren werden door de P.D. een aantal bestrijdings-proeven genomen tegen enkele koolzaadinsecten.Tegen de koolzaadaardvlo (Psylliodes chrysocephala L.) bleken twee, of nog beter drie behandelingen met DDT (500 g technisch DDT/ha) beter te voldoen dan een even groot aantal behandelingen met parathion (250 g technisch parathion/ha). Het effect van drie behandelingen met HCH (65 g gamma/ha) bleef bij dat van beide bovengenoemde middelen sterk ten achter.Is de bestrijding van de aardvlooien zelf, welke dus bij voorkeur met DDT dient te geschieden, niet geslaagd of om bepaalde redenen niet mogelijk geweest, dan moet de bestrijding zich richten tegen de larven in de bladstelen, waarvoor parathion in aanmerking komt.Bij de bestrijding van de koolzaadsnuitkever (Ceuthorrhynchus assimilis Payk.) werden gunstige resultaten bereikt met een middel, dat zowel HCH als dieldrin bevat. HCH (400 g gamma/ha) en toxapheen (1500 g chloorcampheen/ha) gaven een iets minder goede werking te zien, terwijl de werking van parathion (250 g technisch parathion/ha) slechter was dan van alle bovengenoemde middelen.De bestrijding van de galmuglarven (Dasyneura brassicae Winn.) in de hauwen door middel van twee behandelingen met parathion (250 g technisch parathion/ha) leidde niet tot het gewenste resultaat.Vangpalen zullen vermoedelijk nuttige gegevens kunnen verstrekken over het moment waarop en de richting waaruit de snuitkevers komen aanvliegen.Een schatting van de kosten en de baten van de bestrijding der koolzaadsnuitkever maakt het zeer waarschijnlijk dat deze bestrijding economisch verantwoord is, indien veel kevers in het gewas aanwezig zijn.Summary During the past two years the Plant Protection Service has carried out experiments on the control of certain insect pests of colza.Two or preferably three treatments with DDT (500 g/ha technical DDT) against the cabbage stem flea beetle (Psylliodes chrysocephala L.) proved to be more satisfactory than the same number of treatments with parathion (250 g/ha technical parathion). The results of three treatments with BHC (65 g/ha gamma isomer BHC) were much behind those of the above mentioned chemicals.If control of flea beetles, which should normally take place with DDT, should fail or for any reason could not be carried out, control of the larvae in the leaf stalks can be obtained with parathion.Control of gall-midge larvae (Dasyneura brassicae Winn.) in the pods by two treatments with parathion (250 g/ha technical parathion) was not satisfactory.Effective control of cabbage seed weevil (Ceuthorrhynchus assimilis Payk.), was obtained with a formulation containing both BHC and dieldrin. The results with BHC (400 g/ha gamma isomer) and toxaphene (1500 g/ha chlorocamphene) were not quite as good; parathion (250 g/ha technical parathion) was less effective than all the above-mentioned chemicals.Some useful information about the time of arrival of weevils and the direction from which they come can probably be got from the use of sticky board traps.An estimate on the expenses incurred in the control of cabbageweevil and of the advantages to be expected, makes it probable that, in a heavily infected crop, control is economically justified.     

The in vivo sensitivity of ATPases to DDT,DDE, and physical immobilization in American cockroaches

American cockroaches injected with sublethal doses of DDT (0.75 μg/roach) at 5-day intervals showed a 40% reduction in oligomycin-sensitive Mg²⁺ATPase from muscle homogenates, and a 23% reduction of Na⁺-K⁺ATPase from nerve cords. Thus, the maximum effect measured occurred with the same enzyme and tissue as determined from in vitro studies. The metabolite, DDE, used at 15 μg per roach, gave no significant change in activity of the ATPase system following injection. In contrast, high single doses of DDT (7.5 μg/roach) and 100 μg DDE and dicofol per roach caused over 30% increase in oligomycin-sensitive Mg²⁺ATPase of muscle and a 10–15% increase in Na⁺-K⁺ATPase of nerve cords measured 24 and 48 hr later. While a similar response was observed for Mg²⁺ATPase activities in cockroaches that were immobilized, the increase in enzyme activities were much greater than that caused by the pesticides.     

The metabolism of DDT in vivo by the Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica)

Male and female Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) were given intraperitoneal injections of [¹⁴C]DDT in ethanol at a rate of 13.4 mg/kg body wt. Fifty-six days later the tissues and droppings were analysed for total ¹⁴C and metabolites. The rate of loss of ¹⁴C in droppings was very similar in males and females. The maximal rate was reached on the third day, and 65–66% of the injected dose was voided by the fifty-sixth day. Ninety-three to ninety-four percent of the ¹⁴C in droppings and 83–90% of the ¹⁴C in tissues were extracted by solvents. Combined extracts from males and females were used for determination of DDT and its metabolites. Expressing all results as percentages of injected dose, the following were isolated from droppings: DDA (24%), DDT (3%), DDD (5.1%), DDE (11%), and uncharacterised polar metabolites (17%). Twenty-five percent of the dose was retained in the tissues and this was largely accounted for as DDT (10.4%) and DDE (10.5%). Of the total metabolites found 31% was DDE (almost equally divided between tissues and droppings) and 35% was DDA (almost entirely in droppings). Since DDD was not found in significant quantities in tissues, the substantial quantities in droppings were probably produced from DDT by the action of microorganisms.