Changes in phytochemical, antimicrobial and free radical scavenging activities of the Peruvian pepper tree (Schinus molle L.) as influenced by fruit maturation

The effect of stage of maturity on total lipids, fatty acids, yields and essential oil composition and their antimicrobial and free radical scavenging activities of the Schinus molle fruits was investigated. The content of total lipids varied from 2.87 to 5.35% (w/w, dw) and were rich in unsaturated fatty acids particularly linoleic acid. As maturation progress, the essential oil yield dropped from 5.18% to 1.15%. Monoterpene hydrocarbons with α-phellandrene (35.15-40.38%), limonene + β-phellandrene (21.47-36.62%), β-myrcene (7.61-24.96%) and α-pinene (1.92-2.58%) were found to be the main components. At the same time, the essential oils were evaluated for their antimicrobial and free radical scavenging activities. They were found to be active against Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, Salmonella typhymurium and Escherichia coli but they do not inhibit the growth of Candida albicans. Conversely, they showed very weak activity against the DPPH radical. In both assay, the oil derived from the intermediate stage was reported as more efficient.     

Changes in essential oil and fatty acid composition in coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) leaves under saline conditions

The influence of salinity on essential oil and fatty acid composition of Tunisian coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) leaves grown in hydroponic culture was investigated. Volatile constituents and fatty acid of leaves were analyzed. The essential oil yield increased significantly up to 18 and 43% with 25 and 50 mM NaCl, respectively and decreased significantly under high salinity. The major volatile compound in leaves was (E)-2-decenal with 52% of total essential oil constituents, followed by decanal, dodecanal, (E)-2-tridecenal and (E)-2-dodecenal. Further, the content of these compounds was affected differently by the treatment level.Salinity decreased significantly the total fatty acid content of the upper and basal leaves. α-Linolenic (C18:3n3) was the main compound of both organs, followed by linoleic (C18:2n6), heptadecenoïc (C17:1n7) and palmitic (C16:0) acids. Raising NaCl concentrations lead to an important decrease in the unsaturated to saturated fatty acid ratio stimulating the formation of more rigid membrane.     

Effect of drought on the biochemical composition and antioxidant activities of cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) seeds

This study is designed to examine the yield components, fatty acid, and essential oil compositions and phenolic contents fruit essential oil composition, the total phenolic amounts as well as the antioxidant activities of cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) seeds under drought. This plant is one of the most common aromatics in the Mediterranean kitchen. Plants were treated with different levels of water deficit: control (C), moderate water deficit (MWD) and severe water deficit (SWD). Our results indicated that MWD improved the number of umbels per plant as well as the number of umbellets per umbel and the seed yield, in comparison to the control, but it decreased under SWD. Fatty acid composition analysis indicated that petroselinic acid was the major fatty acid (55.9%) followed by palmitic (23.82%) and linoleic (12.40%) acids. Water deficit enhanced the palmitic acid percentage and affected the double bound index of the fatty acid pool and thus the oil quality. The essential oil yield was 1.64% based on the dry weight and increased by 1.40 folds under MWD. Nevertheless it decreased by 37.19% under SWD in comparison to the non treated seeds. Drought results on the modification of the essential oil chemotype from γ-terpinene/phenyl-1,2 ethanediol in the control seeds to γ-terpinene/cuminaldehyde in stressed ones. Besides, total phenolic contents were higher in the treated seeds (MWD and SWD). Results suggest that water deficit treatment may regulate the production of bioactive compounds in cumin seeds, influencing their nutritional and industrial values. Besides, antioxidant activities of the extracts were determined by four different test systems, namely DPPH, β-carotene/linoleic acid chelating and reducing power assays and showed that treated seeds (MWD and SWD) exhibited the highest activity.     

LC-PUFA-Enriched Oil Production by Microalgae: Accumulation of Lipid and Triacylglycerols Containing n-3 LC-PUFA Is Triggered by Nitrogen Limitation and Inorganic Carbon Availability in the Marine Haptophyte Pavlova lutheri

In most microalgal species, triacyglycerols (TAG) contain mostly saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, rather than PUFA, while PUFA-enriched oil is the form most desirable for dietary intake. The ability of some species to produce LC-PUFA-enriched oil is currently of specific interest. In this work, we investigated the role of sodium bicarbonate availability on lipid accumulation and n-3 LC-PUFA partitioning into TAG during batch cultivation of Pavlova lutheri. Maximum growth and nitrate uptake exhibit an optimum concentration and threshold tolerance to bicarbonate addition (~9 mM) above which both parameters decreased. Nonetheless, the transient highest cellular lipid and TAG contents were obtained at 18 mM bicarbonate, immediately after combined alkaline pH stress and nitrate depletion (day nine), while oil body and TAG accumulation were highly repressed with low carbon supply (2 mM). Despite decreases in the proportions of EPA and DHA, maximum volumetric and cellular EPA and DHA contents were obtained at this stage due to accumulation of TAG containing EPA/DHA. TAG accounted for 74% of the total fatty acid per cell, containing 55% and 67% of the overall cellular EPA and DHA contents, respectively. These results clearly demonstrate that inorganic carbon availability and elevated pH represent two limiting factors for lipid and TAG accumulation, as well as n-3 LC-PUFA partitioning into TAG, under nutrient-depleted P. lutheri cultures.     

Characteristics, chemical composition and utilisation of Albizia julibrissin seed oil

The physicochemical characteristics, fatty acid and triacylglycerol compositions, DSC profile and UV/vis spectrum of oil extracted from Albizia julibrissin seeds were determined in this study. The oil content and the moisture of the seeds were 10.50% and 1.56%. The free fatty acid, the peroxide value, the p-anisidine value, the saponification value, the iodine value were 2.54%, 6.61 mequiv. O₂/kg of oil, 1.98, 190.63 (mg KOH/g) and 111.33 (g/100 g of oil), respectively. The specific extinction coefficients K₂₃₂, K₂₆₈ were 7.55 and 0.96, respectively. Linoleic acid (C_18:2, 58.58%), palmitic acid (C₁₆, 13.86%) and oleic acid (C_18:1, 10.47%) were the dominant fatty acids in the A. julibrissin seed oil. LLL (36.87%), OLL (21.62%), PLL (16.69%) and PLO + SLL (8.59%) were the abundant triacylglycerol representing > 83% of the seed oil (L: linoleic, O: oleic, P: palmitic, S: stearic). The DSC melting curves reveal that: melting point = −14.70° C and melting enthalpy = 54.34 J/g. A. julibrissin seed oil showed some absorbance in the UV-B and UV-C ranges. The results of the present analytical study show that A. julibrissin is a promising oilseed crop, which can be used for making soap, hair shampoo and UV protectors. Furthermore, the high level of unsaturated fatty acids makes it desirable in terms of nutrition.     

Specific Metabolites in a Phaeodactylum tricornutum Strain Isolated from Western Norwegian Fjord Water

We have searched for special characteristics in growth, protein expression, fatty acids and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in a local Phaeodactylum tricornutum Bohlin strain (Bergen Marine Biobank), by comparing it with a common accession strain (CCAP). Differences in growth and expressed proteins were detected between the BMB strain and the CCAP strain, and the BMB strain reached the highest cell densities under the given growth conditions. Fatty acid (FA) analyses showed highest relative eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) levels in the exponential phase (25.73% and 28.31%), and highest levels of palmitoleic acid (16:1 n-7) in the stationary phase (46.36% and 43.66%) in the BMB and CCAP strain, respectively. The most striking finding of the VOCs analyses was the relatively high levels of ectocarpene, 6-((1E)-butenyl)-1,4-cycloheptadiene, hormosirene, and desmarestene and structurally related compounds, which were exclusively detected in the BMB strain. Many of the VOCs detected in the CCAP and, in particular, in the BMB strain have been reported as antimicrobial agents. We suggest that the array of pheromones and antimicrobial substances could be part of an allelopathic strategy of the BMB strain, dominated by oval cells, thus reflecting the benthic life stage of this morphological form. These findings show the potential for bioactive metabolites in the BMB strain.     

A comparison of the lipid and fatty acid profiles from the kernels of the fruit (nuts) of Ximenia caffra and Ricinodendron rautanenii from Zimbabwe

The lipid profile of nuts from Ximenia caffra and Ricinodendron rautanenii was determined and compared. Although the total oil content of X. caffra and R. rautanenii nuts was similar (47.6 ± 7.5% versus 53.3 ± 13.7%), the fatty acid profiles differed significantly. X. caffra had a higher content (p < 0.05) of saturated fatty acids than R. rautanenii (20.19 ± 1.07% versus 13.87 ± 3.68%) and contained C22:0 and C24:0 which were lacking in R. rautanenii. Total monounsaturated fatty acids were higher in X. caffra than R. rautanenii (71.48 ± 0.99% versus 36.66 ± 1.95%). Oleic acid (C18:1n9) was the major monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) in X. caffra whereas erucic acid (C22:1n9), the major MUFA in R. rautanenii, was undetectable in X. caffra. R. rautanenii had a greater polyunsaturated fatty acid content than X. caffra which contained C18:3n3 (α-linolenic acid) and nervonic acid (24:1n9). X. caffra is potentially an important source of essential fatty acids.     

Studies on the utilization of Hura crepitans L. seed oil in the preparation of alkyd resins

The utilization of Hura crepitans seed oil in the formulation of alkyd resins was investigated using a two-stage alcoholysis-polyesterification method. The percentage yield of the oil was 36.4%; and the physicochemical characterization revealed that the seed oil is an unsaturated semi-drying oil. The fatty acid profile of the oil showed that it contains linoleic acid (81.6%) as the most abundant fatty acid, and two other fatty acids: palmitic acid (16.92%) and stearic acid (1.76%). Short (I), medium (II) and long (III) oil alkyds were synthesized using the oil, glycerol and phthalic anhydride in different ratios. Properties of the three prepared samples of H. crepitans seed oil alkyds having oil content of 30% (I), 50% (II), and 65% (III) were evaluated. The alkyd resins synthesized compared favourably with the commercially available alkyd resin. The presence of unsaturation in the oil was confirmed by infra-red peak at 2930 cm⁻¹ attributed to CC stretch. The infra-red peaks of the sample also compared well with that of the commercial sample indicating that H. crepitans seed oil has been successfully converted to alkyd resin. Evaluation of prepared alkyds by determination of acid values, solubility in butanol and toluene, resistance of dry film to acid, alkali and water, and drying time revealed that H. crepitans seed oil is a potential raw material for the coating industry.     

Predicting Jatropha curcas seed-oil content, oil composition and protein content using near-infrared spectroscopy—A quick and non-destructive method

The potential of near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) to estimate the oil content, fatty acid composition, and protein content of Jatropha curcas seeds was studied. Seventy-four intact kernels from various sources were scanned by NIRS. All samples were analyzed for oil content (hexane extractions), fatty acid composition (gas chromatography), and protein content (Kjeldahl). Calibration equations were developed for oil content, individual fatty acids (oleic C18:1, linoleic C18:2, stearic C18:0 and palmitic C16:0), and protein content. The performance of the calibration equations was evaluated through external and cross-validation. The results showed that NIRS was a reliable, accurate and nondestructive technique to estimate oil and protein contents, as well as oleic and linoleic fatty acid concentrations in J. curcas kernels; NIRS provides a rapid, simple, and cost-effective alternative method for screening intact J. curcas kernels.     

(Z)-12-Hydroxyoctadec-9-enoic acid in Sesbania aculeata seed oil

On the basis of various industrial importances of hydroxyl fatty acids we have investigated Sesbania aculeata seed oil. The most interesting finding is the presence of a hydroxyolefinic fatty acid (9.24%) along with other usual fatty acids such as lauric (2.51%), myristic (0.37%), palmitic (10.94%), palmitoleic (3.54%), stearic (4.02%), oleic (17.10%), linoleic (45.92%), linolenic (5.29%), arachidic (0.03%) and behenic (1.04%). The structure of this hydroxy fatty acid was established on the basis of spectral data (IR, ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR, MS) and chemical (catalytic hydrogenation, oxidative degradation) methods as (Z)-12-hydroxyoctadec-9-enoic (ricinoleic) acid.     

Comparative seasonal variation and chemical composition of essential oils from the leaves and stems of Schefflera heptaphylla using microwave-assisted and conventional hydrodistillation

Two different isolation techniques, microwave-assisted hydrodistillation (MAHD) and conventional hydrodistillation (HD), were used to extract the volatile constituents from the leaves and stems of Schefflera heptaphylla (L.) Frodin harvested during four different seasons, which were subsequently analyzed via gas chromatography with flame ionization detection and gas chromatography with mass spectrometry. MAHD is more advantageous than HD in terms of energy savings and extraction time (60 min vs. 180 min for MAHD vs. HD). Large variations in the composition among the different oils were observed. The seasonal changes in the percentages of the main constituents of the oils were irregular; this affected the quantity and composition of the oil. Oil yield was affected by the method of extraction and seasonal changes. It ranged from 0.11% to 0.27%, with the maximum amount of oil extracted from the leaves using MAHD in winter and the minimum from the stem oil extraction using HD in spring. The essential oil content varied significantly with the season. Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons constituted the major portion of the essential oils. Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons were highest in the leaf oil extraction by HD during winter (88.6%) and lowest in the stem oil extraction by HD during spring (56.3%). Microwave irradiation did not adversely affect the composition of the essential oils. MAHD, indeed, is a modern, green, and fast technology.     

Characteristics, composition and thermal stability of Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. seed oil

The chemical composition, main physicochemical properties and thermal stability of oil extracted from Acacia senegal seeds were evaluated. The oil, moisture and the ash contents of the seeds were 9.80%, 6.92% and 3.82%, respectively. Physicochemical properties of the oil were iodine value, 106.56 g/100 g of oil; saponification value, 190.23 mg KOH/g of oil; refractive index (25 °C), 1.471; unsaponifiable matter, 0.93%; acidity, 6.41% and peroxide value, 5.43 meq. O₂/kg of oil. The main fatty acids in the oil were oleic acid (43.62%) followed by linoleic acid (30.66%) and palmitic acid (11.04%). The triacylglycerols (TAGs) with equivalent carbon number ECN 44 (34.90%) were dominant, followed by TAGs ECN 46 (28.19%), TAGs ECN 42 (16.48%) and TAGs ECN 48 (11.23%). The thermal stability analysed in a normal oxidizing atmosphere showed that the oil decomposition began at 268.6 °C and ended at 618.5 °C, with two stages of decomposition at 401.5 °C and 576.3 °C. According to these results, A. senegal seed oil has physicochemical properties, fatty acids composition and thermal characteristics that may become interesting for specific applications in several segments of food and non-food industries.     

Protein content, oil content and fatty acid profiles as potential criteria to determine the origin of commercially grown chia (Salvia hispanica L.)

Chia (Salvia hispanica L.), an annual herb of the Labiatae family, produces seeds which were one of the basic foods of Central American civilizations in pre-Columbian times. Chia seed contains the highest known percentage of α-linolenic fatty acid of any plant source. In recent years, chia seed has become increasingly important for human health and nutrition because of its high content of α-linolenic fatty acid, and the beneficial health effects that arise from its consumption. A study was undertaken to characterize protein and oil contents as well as fatty acid composition of chia seeds grown in some larger commercial fields, in an attempt to determine how these components are affected by location. Oil saturation tended to decrease as elevation of seed production increased, with decreasing levels of palmitic, stearic, oleic, and linoleic fatty acids found. The main constituent in the chia oil was ω-3 α-linolenic fatty acid, and ranged from 64.8% to 56.9%. Differences were significant (P < 0.05) among locations. Significant differences in protein content and fatty acid composition were also found for the commercially grown chia originating from three ecosystems. It is possible that these differences could be used to distinguish chia's origin, if additional research was undertaken to characterize such differences.     

Discriminant analysis of selected yield components and fatty acid composition of chosen Triticum monococcum, Triticum dicoccum and Triticum spelta accessions

This study analyses the variability of key yield components, the content of protein and crude fat in grain and the fatty acid composition of 50 spring accessions of Triticum monococcum, Triticum dicoccum and Triticum spelta of various origins. The average protein content of the grain of T. monococcum was 20.8%, of T. dicoccum 19.7%, and of spelt 17.0%. The crude fat content of T. monococcum grain (2.7%) was significantly higher compared with T. spelta (2.4%) and T. dicoccum (2.3%). In crude fat, fatty acids C18:2, C18:1 and C16 predominated. T. spelta was characterised by the highest concentrations of C18:2 and C16 (55.89% and 18.77% respectively), while T. monococcum had the highest content of C18:1 (26.35%). The structure of analysed fatty acids proved to be highly desirable in this species. A discriminant analysis performed separately for five variables: protein and fat content and three biometrical characters and separately for fatty acid composition enabled three Triticum species to be distinguished. These species also differed significantly with respect to the C18:1/C16 ratio which was equal to 1.78, 1.06, 1.47 and 0.99 in T. monococcum, T. dicoccum, T. spelta and Triticum aestivum respectively.     

Fatty acid and oil variation in seed from kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.)

Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) is a fibre plant native to east-central Africa. The potential for using kenaf seeds as a source of edible oil is often overlooked when considering kenaf as a fibre and feed crop. The aim of this research was to study and compare the fatty acid composition and oil content of eight commercial kenaf varieties from various countries. Linoleic, oleic, and palmitic acid were the predominant fatty acids in all cultivars. Percentages of fatty acids varied greatly among different kenaf varieties. Gregg had the highest percentage of linoleic acid whilst El Salvador had the lowest. El Salvador had the highest percentage of oleic acid and Endora had the highest percentage of palmitic acid. Stearic acid and palmitic acid were positively correlated, as well as stearic and linoleic acid. Increasing stearic and linolenic acid and reducing palmitic acid at the same time therefore might be difficult through conventional breeding. The oil content was 19.84% on average and there was not much difference between the varieties. The relatively high oil content and the unique fatty acid composition, suggested that kenaf seed could be used as a source of edible oil. Kenaf oil can be considered nutritionally healthy because of the relatively high amount of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids.     

Cryptostegia grandiflora — a potential multi-use crop

Cryptostegia grandiflora, a member of Asclepiadaceae, was evaluated as a potential multi-use crop. The plant contained 14.0% protein, 6.5% oil, 6.9% polyphenol, and 2.13% hydrocarbon. The gross heat value of the species was 3878.0 cal/g, while the oil fraction was 7350.1 cal/g, and the hydrocarbon fraction was 9300.0 cal/g. The NMR spectra of the hydrocarbon fraction reveals the presence of cis-polyisoprene (natural rubber). The oil fraction contains both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids including: lauric acid (trace), myristic acid (15.24%), palmitic acid (25.90%), stearic acid (3.8%), oleic acid (8.0%), linoleic acid (24.76%), and arachidic acid (22.28%). The high proportion of saturated fatty acids and the high oil content (>5.0%) make C. grandiflora a potential source for industrial raw material and alternative for conventional oil.     

Variations in essential oil yield and composition during Cinnamomum cassia bark growth

To extract essential oil for industrial use, the yields and compositions of bark oil during Cinnamomum cassia growth (1-3 years old for the branch bark; 5-12 years old for the stem bark) were determined. The branch bark fraction had a higher essential oil yield than the whole branch. The essential oil yield from branch bark varied within 2.70-3.11% (w/w), while that from stem bark was 0.41-2.61% (w/w) due to differences in age and segment (top, center and lower) of the tree. There were 41 volatile compounds identified in bark oil, among which the majority presented high fluctuations in percentage of composition both in different growth stages and segments. Variations in oil yields did not present the same pattern as the percentages of trans-cinnamaldehyde. The results suggest that choosing bark according to trees’ growth stages and separating stem barks into top, center and lower sections within a tree should significantly improve the extraction efficiency.     

Fatty acid composition and oxidation stability of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) seed oil extracted by supercritical carbon dioxide

Supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO₂) was employed to extract oil from hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) seeds. For ground seeds, the supercritical extraction was carried out at temperatures of 40, 60 and 80 °C and pressures of 300 and 400 bar. Different solvent-ratios were applied. Supercritical CO₂ extractions were compared with a conventional technique, n-hexane in Soxhlet. The extraction yields, fatty acid composition of the oil and oxidation stability were determined. The seed samples used in this work contained 81% PUFAs, of which 59.6% was linoleic acid (ω-6), 3.4% γ-linolenic (ω-3), and 18% α-linolenic (ω-6). The highest oil yield from seeds was 22%, corresponding to 72% recovery, at 300 bar and 40 °C and at 400 bar and 80 °C. The highest oxidation stability corresponding to 2.16 mM Eq Vit E was obtained at 300 bar and 80 °C.     

Lipids and Composition of Fatty Acids of Saccharina latissima Cultivated Year-Round in Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture

This study is evaluating the seasonal lipid and fatty acid composition of the brown seaweed Saccharina latissima. Biomass was sampled throughout the year (bi-monthly) at the commercial cultivation site near a fish farm in an integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) and at a reference site in Denmark (2013–2014). Generally, there was no difference in the biomass composition between sites; however, significant seasonal changes were found. The lipid concentration varied from 0.62%–0.88% dry weight (DW) in July to 3.33%–3.35% DW in November (p < 0.05) in both sites. The fatty acid composition in January was significantly different from all the other sampling months. The dissimilarities were mainly explained by changes in the relative abundance of 20:5n-3 (13.12%–33.35%), 14:0 (11.07%–29.37%) and 18:1n-9 (10.15%–16.94%). Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA’s) made up more than half of the fatty acids with a maximum in July (52.3%–54.0% fatty acid methyl esters; FAME). This including the most appreciated health beneficial PUFA’s, eicosapentaenoic (EPA; 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n-3), but also arachidonic (ARA) and stearidonic acid (SDA), which are not found in land vegetables such as cabbage and lettuce. Compared to fat (salmon) and lean fish (cod) this seaweed species contains higher proportions of ARA and SDA, but lower EPA (only cod) and DHA. Conclusively, the season of harvest is important for the choice of lipid quantity and quality, but the marine vegetables provide better sources of EPA, DHA and long-chain (LC)-PUFA’s in general compared to traditional vegetables.     

Variation in chemical composition and biological activities of two species of Opuntia flowers at four stages of flowering

The chemical composition of hexane extracts from flowers belonging to two species of prickly pear, Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller and Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haworth has been studied by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in four developmental stages of flower: vegetative, initial flowering, full flowering, and post-flowering stages. Remarkable differences were noted between the flowers’ compositions. The main compounds were carboxylic acid (28-97%), terpenes (0.2-57%), esters (0.2-27%), and alcohols (<1.8%).The study of the biological activities showed that extracts were active in vitro towards four bacteria and two fungal strains. It exhibited remarkable activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli.Antioxidant activity of the flowers extracts was evaluated by the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical method.Our findings demonstrate the interest of Opuntia flowers extract as a source of bioactive substances and its potential preservative use in food.