Simulating infiltration into stony soils with a dual‐porosity model

Soils containing rock fragments are widely distributed in the world. However, literature on the dynamic simulation of water movement in stony soils is scarce. In this paper, a dual‐porosity model was used to simulate water infiltration into soils containing rock fragments. Sensitivity analysis of the dual‐porosity model parameters demonstrates that the increase of rock fragment content clearly decreased infiltration into stony soils. Big stones hampered infiltration more than small stones. Spherical stones accelerated infiltration compared with solid, cylindrical stones and rectangular, slab‐like stones. Numerical analysis was also performed to test and compare a non‐equilibrium dual‐porosity model (NDPM) with an equilibrium dual‐porosity model (EDPM) and an equilibrium single‐pore model (ESPM). Infiltration experiments on disturbed soils were carried out to verify the ability of the NDPM to simulate infiltration into stony soils. Based on hydraulic parameters of soils without rock fragments and mass transfer coefficients obtained independently, the extrapolated cumulative infiltrations calculated by the NDPM were in good agreement with the observed data. Fitted model parameters of the NDPM indicate that rock fragments not only act as a source or sink to affect infiltration but also change the pore structure of the fine earth, apart from reducing the cross‐sectional area for water flow. Though further studies are required to improve the dual‐porosity model, it already describes more characteristics of infiltration into stony soils and explains more phenomena than does the single‐porosity model.     

Effects of rock fragments on physical degradation of cultivated soils by rainfall

To understand better the role of rock fragments in soil and water conservation processes, the effects of rock fragments in maintaining a favourable soil structure and thus also in preventing physical degradation of tilled soils was studied. Laboratory experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of rock fragment content, rock fragment size, initial soil moisture content of the fine earth and surface rock fragment cover on soil subsidence by rainfall (i.e. change in bulk density by one or more cycles of wetting and drying). A total of 15 rainfall simulations (cumulative rainfall, 192.5 mm; mean intensity, 70 mm h⁻¹) were carried out. Before and after each rainfall application the surface elevation of a 19-cm thick plough layer was measured with a laser microrelief meter. In all experiments, the bulk density of the fine earth increased with applied rainfall volume to reach a maximum value at about 200 mm of cumulative rainfall. From the experimental results it was concluded that the subsidence rate decreased sharply for soils containing more than 0.50 kg kg⁻¹ rock fragments, irrespective of rock fragment size. Fine earth bulk densities were negatively related to rock fragment content beyond a threshold value of 0.30 kg kg⁻¹ for small rock fragments (1.7–2.7 cm) and 0.50 kg kg⁻¹ for large rock fragments (7.7 cm). Initial soil moisture content influenced subsidence only in the initial stage of the experiments, when some swelling occurred in the dry soils. Surface rock fragment cover had no significant effect on subsidence of the plough layer. Therefore, subsidence of the plough layer in these experiments appears to be mainly due to changing soil strength upon drainage rather than the result of direct transfer of kinetic energy from falling drops. The relative increase in porosity of the fine earth as well as the absolute increase in macroporosity with rock fragment content will cause deeper penetration of rainfall into the soil, resulting in water conservation. Therefore, crushing of large rock fragments into smaller ones is to be preferred over removal of rock fragments from the plough layer.     

Removal of rock fragments and its effect on soil loss and crop yield, Tigray, Ethiopia

Abstract. When the farmers of the Highlands of Tigray (northern Ethiopia) consider rock fragment cover in their fields to be excessive, they remove some of them. In addition, large amounts of rock fragments of all sizes are removed from fields for building stone bunds. Semi-structured interviews indicate that the farmers are often reluctant to take away the smaller rock fragments (i.e. < 5 cm across) from their fields, since they believe these benefit soil moisture conservation and protect topsoil from erosion. A field experiment was carried out on a Vertic Cambisol (average slope: 0.125 m m^–1), 2 km east of Hagere Selam (subhumid climate). Rock fragments were totally, partially or not removed from the 12 runoff plots (5 m × 6 m) before the beginning of the 1999 cropping season, during which a local mixture of wheat varieties ( Triticum spp.) was sown. After harvest, erosion rates were assessed by measuring deposited sediment volume in trenches at the lower side of each subplot, and grain and straw yields were assessed. We found a significant negative relationship between rock fragment cover and soil loss by water erosion. However, the resulting positive relationship between rock fragment cover and grain and straw yield was weak. This might be explained by the fact that the plot did not suffer from drought due to soil and climatic conditions. Detailed analysis showed that cover by medium and large rock fragments (> 2 cm diameter) showed an optimum percentage cover above which crop yields decrease. A recommendation resulting from this study is to rely on the farmers' experience: smaller rock fragments should never be removed from the surface of fields during soil and water conservation works; instead rock fragment rich soil can be used to top the stone bunds.     

The contribution of rock fragments to the available water content of stony soils: Proposition of new pedotransfer functions

The contribution of rock fragments to the soil available water content (SAWC) of stony soil has been quantified by measurements of bulk density and gravimetric water content at different water potentials on rock fragments of different lithologies: flints, cherts, chalks, gaizes and limestones. More than 1000 pebbles (2 cm < equivalent diameter of the rock fragment < 5 cm) have been sampled in stony soils developed from each of the five lithologies. We demonstrated that the water content at saturation of the studied pebbles was equal to the water content at −100 hPa and to the water content at field capacity. A linear relationship between the water content at −100 hPa and at −15,840 hPa enabled to derive a simple pedotransfer function to determine the available water content of the rock fragments. We also proposed a second simple pedotransfer function, which expresses the available water content from the dry bulk density of the rock fragments only. A simulation at the horizon scale for a loamy-clay stony horizon showed that the SAWC could be strongly misjudged when the rock fragments were not taken into account: for a stony horizon containing 30% of pebbles, the SAWC is underestimated by 5% for chert pebbles and by 33% for chalk pebbles.     

The effects of biocidal treatments on metabolism in soil—V: A method for measuring soil biomass

A new method for the determination of biomass in soil is described. Soil is fumigated with CHCl₃ vapour, the CHCl₃ removed and the soil then incubated. The biomass is calculated from the difference between the amounts of CO₂ evolved during incubation by fumigated and unfumigated soil. The method was tested on a set of nine soils from long-term field experiments. The amounts of biomass C ha^?1 in the top 23 cm of soil from plots on the Broadbalk continuous wheat experiment were 530 kg (unmanured plot), 590 (plot receiving inorganic fertilizers) and 1160 (plot receiving farmyard manure). Soils that had been fallowed for 1 year contained less biomass than soils carrying a crop. A calcareous woodland soil contained 1960 kg biomass C ha^?1, and an unmanured soil under permanent grass 2020. The arable soils contained about 2% of their organic C in the biomass; uncultivated soils a little more—about 3%.     

Conservation of soil moisture by different stone covers on alpine talus slopes (Lassen, California)

This study reports on the influence of stone covers with different clast sizes on the soil moisture of alpine talus slopes in Lassen (California). Fifteen four-plot sets were sampled in the dry season (July 1990) in sandy areas and in talus covered with pebbles, cobbles, or blocks between 2740 and 2775 m. Three depths (0–5, 5–10, 10–15 cm) were sampled. Field moisture content increased gradually with depth in all soil profiles, and also in plots covered by increasingly larger rocks. Surface soils in sand areas were very dry, but under rocks had water contents 6 to 14 times greater. Differences among plots decreased with depth, but subsoil samples in sand were still drier than those beneath any stone cover at similar depths. Blocks were most effective in conserving moisture; water content below them was higher than even in deep (10–15 cm) sand soils. Soil temperatures were recorded in sand and under blocks for an 11-day period. Minima were not significantly different, but average maxima were 5.6°C lower under blocks than in sand, which reached highs 4.4°C lower than the air. Differences in soil moisture among talus types are ascribed to lower evaporation losses under stones, due to both disruption of capillarity by the coarse particles, which prevented water flow to the talus surface, and to their efficient reduction of maximum temperatures. An irrigation experiment was conducted at 2110 m on a steep talus on the Chaos Crags from July 18 to Aug. 2, 1993. Four 100×75 cm plots with the same surface types than at Lassen received 22.5 mm water; moisture content was then periodically sampled. Watering produced similar water distributions among soil depths and talus types to those in Lassen. Evaporation occurred quickly in bare soils due to high air and soil temperatures. The sand surface was already dry 2 days after watering, but stone-covered plots remained moist until day 15, when soils under blocks still retained 77–97% of the water content (percent by weight) at the start of the test.     

Rock fragments I. Their effect on runoff, erosion and soil properties under field conditions

Abstract. The effects of different sizes, amounts, and positions of rock fragments on soil properties and erosion were studied in experimental plots (10 treatments including bare soils and soils under natural vegetation, with 3 replicates each) installed on a hillslope.
Over five events, the largest amounts of runoff were from bare soils containing abundant rock fragments, either partially embedded on the surface or incorporated in the upper part of the soil. Stoneless soils gave smaller amounts, and the smallest runoffs were measured on soils under natural vegetation. Generally, large rock fragments (cobbles) caused greater runoff than smaller fragments (coarse gravel). However, soils with appreciable amounts of coarse gravel on the surface generated considerable runoff under rainfalls of low intensity and long duration, but smaller amounts at greater rainfall intensities.
Sediment loss was greater from soils with cobbles than from soils containing coarse gravel; vegetation greatly decreased sediment loss from both.
In a 12-month period, the organic matter content of the soils decreased by 15.5 to 23.0%, decreasing soil aggregate stability. The organic matter content was greater in the collected sediments than in the soil.     

含岩屑紫色土水分扩散规律

紫色土中存在的岩屑显著影响土壤水分扩散。以往研究主要集中在> 2 mm岩屑上而忽视了<2 mm岩屑的作用。因此,探讨>2 mm岩屑对紫色土水分扩散的影响基础上,明确<2 mm岩屑的作用对完善含岩屑紫色土水分扩散规律的研究具有重要的意义,从而为土壤水动力学模型的构建提供理论依据。以四川盆地紫色页岩发育的暗棕紫泥土和泥岩发育的红棕紫泥土为研究对象,设置3种岩屑粒径(0.25~2,2~5,5~10 mm)和4种岩屑含量(0,30%,50%,70%),利用水平土柱吸渗法测定含岩屑土壤湿润锋变化特征、水分扩散率D(θ)和土壤含水率θ,并拟合D(θ)、Boltzmann参数λ与θ之间的关系。结果表明:对于暗棕紫泥土,岩屑粒径为2~5 mm时,土壤湿润锋前进速率和D(θ)随岩屑含量增加呈先增加后降低再增加的趋势;岩屑粒径为0.25~2,5~10 mm时,土壤湿润锋前进速率和D(θ)随岩屑含量增加逐渐增加。对于红棕紫泥土,岩屑粒径为2~5,5~10 mm,随岩屑含量增加,70%岩屑含量的土壤D(θ)明显大于其余3个岩屑含量的土壤,而30%岩屑含量和50%岩屑含量土壤之间的D(θ)无显著差异,且土壤湿润锋前进速率均呈先增加后降低再增加的趋势;岩屑粒径为0.25~2 mm时,土壤湿润锋前进速率和D(θ)随岩屑含量增加逐渐增加。因此,随岩屑含量提高,土壤水分扩散速率整体呈现增加趋势;且泥岩发育的土壤水分扩散速率高于页岩发育的土壤。     

免耕对黑土春夏季节温度和水分的影响

通过田间定位试验,研究免耕与常规耕作对东北黑土区玉米和大豆生长早期土壤温度和水分的影响。研究结果表明:播种前,由于免耕与常规耕作(秋翻)覆盖率和含水量不同,免耕处理的玉米和大豆小区土壤的白天5cm地温均低于常规耕作处理,夜间差异不大;相同深度的玉米和大豆秋翻处理土壤日平均温度分别比免耕高0. 7℃和0. 5℃;随土壤深度的增加,土壤温度的差异逐渐减小。播种后,除了下午免耕5cm地温略低于秋翻外,下午至夜间免耕的10cm和15cm地温,均略高于秋翻的土壤温度。这是由于免耕下土壤水分增高引起的土壤热容量加大,从而缓解夜间降温和寒流影响,减缓土壤温度下降的结果。播种前,免耕处理的玉米和大豆地土壤水分分别比秋翻处理高2. 4%和1. 8%。播种后的一个月期间,免耕大豆土壤含水量比秋翻高2. 3%。初步的研究结果表明,免耕可以在一定程度上缓解春季黑土墒情不好的问题,这对保证出苗和幼苗的健康生长非常重要。     

The effect of soil moisture on the vertical movement of rock fragments by tillage

Chiselling in air-dry soils can rapidly create inverse grading of the plough layer as field experiments showed, i.e., the largest particles (rock fragments) are brought to the surface and the smallest particles concentrate at the bottom of the plough layer. Since no information about the effect of soil moisture and fine earth characteristics on this process is available laboratory experiments were conducted to examine the effect of soil moisture and fine earth characteristics on the vertical movement (segregation) of rock fragments due to tillage. An experimental trough, 120×60×40 cm³, was filled with three layers (each 4 cm thick) of fine earth (sand or silt loam), and rock fragments (1.2–2.2 and 2.7–4.0 cm). Tillage was simulated by moving a hand-held cultivator through the mixture. The results for the sandy soil matrix showed that inter-particle percolation was slowed down by soil moisture, however, at the same rate for different moisture levels. This was attributed to water-films that surround the sand particles. In the silt-loam soil matrix inter-particle percolation was stronger than that occurring in the sandy matrix at similar volumetric moisture contents but vertical movement was impossible at higher moisture contents (0.17 m³ m⁻³) because of a strong increase in stickiness. The results imply that at low moisture contents farmers in areas threatened by desertification can use moderate tillage as a means to create a surface rich in rock fragments which helps to increase water infiltration and decrease erosion.     

石砾参数对土壤水流和溶质运移影响研究进展

土壤水流和溶质运移一直是土壤学研究的热点,溶质运移理论主要应用于地下水污染、污染物运移、土壤重金属污染研究等方面。溶质主要通过优先流和基质流进行运移,影响溶质运移因素很多,主要包括土壤结构、质地、水力传导率、体积质量、初始含水量、根系、石砾等。石砾作为土壤质地中的一个分级单位,与溶质运移关系较为复杂。本文综合介绍了石砾基本内涵以及石砾对土壤水流和溶质运移影响研究进展;系统阐述了石砾内部参数(石砾覆盖度、含量、粒径、空间异质性等)和外部参数(根石结构、干湿冻融、耕作等),指出目前研究主要量化土壤表面及土壤表层石砾参数对水文效应、土壤侵蚀、入渗以及径流的影响,然而石砾参数对溶质运移影响研究不够系统,石砾参数与溶质运移关系研究尚处于初步阶段,对土壤深层石砾研究缺乏;归纳了石砾参数研究技术手段及模型;探讨了目前石砾参数对土壤水流和溶质运移影响研究存在的问题以及今后研究趋势。     

Rock fragments in soil support a different microbial community from the fine earth

Two sandstone-derived soils under pure stands of silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) were studied to determine if the fine earth (<2 mm material) and two size-classes of porous rock fragments (>2 mm material) supported different microbial communities. Samples from three soil horizons (A, Bw, and BC) were analysed under both optical and scanning electron microscopes. Small stones (2-10 mm in average diameter) appeared more altered than larger ones (40-60 mm) and the effects of weathering became more obvious with shallower depth. In both soils, numerous hyphae and other living forms were observed on the surface of the stones from the A and Bw horizons; this contrasted with the stones from the BC horizon, which showed little or no colonisation. The microbial community of each fraction was characterised using Biolog-Community Level Physiological Profiles (CLPP) and phospholipid fatty acid analyses (PLFA) for samples in the A and B horizons. Significant potential microbial activity (C source utilisation) was associated with rock fragments, from the A horizon and, to a lesser extent, the B, although this was lower than for the equivalent fine earth fraction. The microbial colonisation of the stones appeared inversely related with their size and sampling depth. The PLFA analysis showed not only quantitative differences in the microbial biomass between horizons and size-fractions but also highlighted that the communities differed between soils, horizons (for the sole beech soil) and fractions. These findings demonstrate that by considering rock fragments as a microbiologically inert fraction and discarding them before analysis, as usually is done, can lead to an incomplete picture of both the total amount and, perhaps more importantly, the structure of soil microbial community.     

基于电阻率断层扫描技术的土壤砾石体积含量评估

为了对电阻率断层扫描技术应用于土壤中砾石含量的研究进行评估,该文对此应用进行了数值模拟研究。该研究假设石质土壤为由细土和砾石组成的二相介质,采用有线差分法对所建立土壤数值模型进行了电阻率断层扫描模拟,模型中砾石随机分布且相互独立,过程中对砾石尺寸和土壤中水分情况的影响进行了研究。结果表明对已知二相各自电阻率值的石质土壤,其等效电阻率与其中砾石体积含量相关,数值模拟结果与理论预测结果相符合,验证了电阻率断层扫描技术应用土壤中砾石体积含量估计的可适用性,同时指出在土壤较湿润时为该技术的适宜使用条件。该研究为土壤学分类研究及质量评价提供参考和指导。     

The role of rock fragments in crack and soil structure development: a laboratory experiment with a Vertisol

A large number of factors that influence soil surface cracking behaviour in swell‐shrink soils have been studied, but there are few studies on the influence of rock fragments on crack development. Effects of rock fragments have been investigated with reference to the soil pore system but they have mainly been studied indirectly through measurements of water flow and/or bulk density changes. A laboratory experiment was carried out with repacked soil samples that were prepared by adding rock fragments of three different sizes (2–4, 4–8 and 12–16 mm) to a Vertisol at two different rates (10 and 25% by volume). Soil image analysis procedures were applied in order to describe quantitatively the network of surface cracks and the pore system to a depth of 8 cm below the surface, which developed after wetting‐drying cycles. Mean values and standard deviations of surface crack or pore widths decreased with the increase in rock fragment content and the decrease in rock fragment size, while the density of the ‘skeleton’ of the crack and pore networks increased. Rock fragments also induced vertical homogenization of the soil structure. The number of rock fragments was a key factor in determining some crack network characteristics, inducing inverse variations in mean width and skeleton density of the crack or pore network. Overall results suggested that rock fragments acted as triggering points for crack and pore development in Vertisols. The findings of this work provide a contribution to the understanding of the mechanisms of crack network and soil structure development that are induced by stones in swell‐shrink soils.     

A comparison of the texture of grassland and eroded sandy soils from Shropshire, UK

In previous studies, periodic sampling of topsoils on runoff plots on sandy soils at the Hilton experimental site, Shropshire, UK, suggested erosion decreased the topsoil clay content and increased the coarse fraction. However, a comparison of soil and sediment properties suggested erosion selectively removed sand. Therefore, to cross-check the effects of erosion on soil properties, topsoil samples were collected from bare, eroded runoff plots and compared with samples from adjacent non-eroded grassland. Bare, eroded soil was stonier and particularly deficient in sand compared with grassed soil. Textural differences were very marked in the medium and coarse sands, especially the 0.5–1.0 mm fraction. On the basis of mean properties, the grassed soil was a very slightly stony loamy sand and the bare soil a slightly stony sandy loam. Soil organic matter was significantly less in the bare soils than the grassed soils and thus may have contributed to the higher erodibility of sands in bare soils.     

土壤中砾石含量的测定方法研究进展

石质土壤中含有大量砾石,大量砾石的存在会影响土壤理化特性和水力特性。土壤中砾石含量的研究会影响土石介质的生产力评估、水文及风化过程的研究水平。本文主要介绍了国内外土壤中砾石含量的现有测定方法,对环刀取样法、挖坑法、Viro插钎法,γ射线法、探地雷达及电阻率断层扫描技术的实际应用进行了讨论。在实际研究中应根据实际情况选择合适的砾石含量测定方法。土壤中砾石含量的测定应该引起国内相关研究的重视,为土壤研究提供重要信息并为土壤学研究水平的提高提供帮助。     

The effect of rock fragment size and position on topsoil moisture on arid and semi-arid hillslopes

Rock fragments on arid hillslopes affect rainwater redistribution and overland flow, through various hydrological processes. The present study focuses on the evolution of topsoil moisture content under rock fragments following rain events. Measurement was taken under rock fragments in various sizes (large and small) and positions (‘on top’ of the soil surface and 'partially embedded' within the soil surface) at north- and south-facing hillslopes in arid and semi-arid areas. The main findings: (1) the topsoil moisture content under rock fragments was higher over time than that of bare soil areas; (2) rock fragments affect the topsoil moisture content for a longer time in semi-arid areas than in arid areas; and (3) large rock fragments and ‘partially embedded’ ones are favorable micro-environments for accepting and retaining rainwater and overland flowing water. This may have eco-geomorphic implications regarding the mosaic-like patterns of source and sink areas on arid hillslopes.     

Effect of rock fragment cover on interrill soil erosion from bare soils in Western Andalusia, Spain

It is known that rock fragments on the surface of soils can enhance infiltration and protect the soil against rainfall erosion. However, the effect of rock fragments in natural forest soils is less well understood. In this article, we studied the influence of rock fragment cover on run‐off, infiltration and interrill soil erosion under simulated rainfall on natural bare soils in a Spanish dehesa (managed holm oak woodland). We studied 60 plots with different rock fragment cover ranging from 3% to 85% under three simulated rainfall intensities (50, 100 and 150 mm/h). Surface run‐off appeared later and sediment yield values were smaller in soils with greater rock fragment cover. Rock fragment cover also increased infiltration rates. The final infiltration rates were 54–98% at a rainfall intensity of 50 mm/h, 31–88% at 100 mm/h and 20–80% at 150 mm/h. The interrill soil loss rates were decreased by rock fragment cover and increased with rainfall intensity. The soil loss rate was always small (0.02–1 Mg ha/h) when rock fragment cover was 75% or more. Rock fragment cover was related to soil loss rate by an exponential function.     

中国西南薄层砾石土喀斯特坡地土壤的137Cs分布特点

The fallout radionuclide cesium-137(137 Cs) has been widely employed as a tracer for assessment of soil loss from thick uniform soils;however,few studies have been conducted on thin stony soils on slopes underlain by carbonate rocks which are widely distributed in karst areas.Information derived from 137 Cs measurement of soil samples collected along a carbonate rock slope with thin stony soil where neither soil erosion nor deposition occurred was used to investigate the characteristics of 137 Cs redistribution in a karst area of Southwest China.The results indicated that the 137 Cs inventories of the surface soil on the slope studied were much lower than that of the local 137 Cs reference inventory and the 137 Cs activities were much higher than those on slopes with thick uniform soils.The spatial distribution of 137 Cs inventories was characterized by considerable variation.The high 137 Cs depletion in the stony soil of the slope studied was mainly because a considerable proportion of the fallout input of 137 Cs could be lost with runoff and the dissolution of carbonate particles in the soil promoted the loss of 137 Cs.These demonstrated that the rates of soil loss could not be estimated from the degree of depletion of the 137 Cs inventory relative to the local reference inventory for the thin stony soil of the rocky slope underlain by carbonate rocks in the study area in the way that has been widely used in areas with thick uniform soils.     

旱地小麦保护性耕作增加播前地表处理的研究

针对临汾旱地小麦保护性耕作试验中存在的播种质量不高、缺苗断垄、苗数不足等问题进行了研究。主要采用覆盖深松加地表处理的方法，研究了不同地表处理对土壤墒情、覆盖率、小麦产量和经济效益的影响。结果是：在覆盖量相同的情况下，动土量越小，土壤保墒效果越好；与保护性耕作原工艺相比，增加地表处理后播种质量改善、出苗率提高；增加地表处理可提高0～50 cm土层水分利用率；增加地表处理使小麦单产在保护性耕作基本处理的基础上显著提高，经济效益明显。试验证明，覆盖深松加地表处理是一项旱地小麦增产的有效措施。