Optimal fallow area and location for multifunctional benefits of a paddy field during drought periods

Paddy fields not only serve to produce food but also have a variety of important ecological functions. Apart from the internal benefit (i.e., crop production), there are external benefits (i.e., reduction of greenhouse gases, oxygen generation, reduction of biological oxygen demand, flood mitigation, and other functions that are difficult to quantify). In the present study, the optimal fallow locations and areas were determined for evaluating the multifunctional benefits of paddy fields during drought periods, by using an optimization model for fallow fields under different exceedance probabilities of river inflows. For each time step, the appropriate probability distributions for river inflows to the Chi-Chi Weir (range 50–90 %) for generating system inflows were obtained. The optimization model for fallow fields was solved using Lingo. It was observed that the external benefits of paddy fields accounted for 76 % of total benefits, with the production benefit accounting for the remainder. The total benefits decreased as the exceedance probability of river discharges increased. Our findings indicate that fallow areas increase as irrigation areas shift downstream.     

Effects of tillage and irrigation on the occurrence and establishment of native wetland plant species in fallow paddy fields

Traditional weed management, such as tillage and irrigation, has led to an enhanced maintenance of wetland plant species in fallow paddy fields. Recent herbicide usage and improvements in irrigation and drainage systems however have caused habitat loss of these species, especially in fields on open lowlands. We conducted experiments in three fallow paddy fields situated on the alluvial Echigo Plain in central Japan with an aim to restore the habitat of native wetland plant species. The three experimental fields were managed under different irrigation regimes, (1) perennially flooded with water, (2) intermittent irrigation, and (3) temporary irrigation. Half the area of each experimental field was tilled before irrigation. Detrended correspondence analysis revealed obvious floristic differences between experimental and control fields with no irrigation. The proportion of wetland plant species in the experimental fields increased corresponding to the irrigation period, ranging 60–86%, and was relatively greater than that in control fields. In the experimental fields, differences in both tillage and irrigation affected the occurrence of plant species. Tillage restricted the occurrence of many non-wetland plant species, and had a positive effect on the establishment of several annual wetland plant species. In addition, a longer duration of irrigation is not necessarily suitable for the occurrence of all wetland plant species. We concluded that fallow paddy fields provide a possible habitat for the restoration of native wetland plant species through appropriate tillage and irrigation.     

Evaluation of irrigation water requirements and crop yields with different irrigation schedules for paddy fields in ChiaNan irrigated area,Taiwan

Recent water shortages in reservoirs have caused such problems as insufficient water and fallow rice fields in Southern Taiwan; therefore, comparing irrigation water requirements and crop production of paddy fields using a technique that differs from the conventional flood irrigation method is important. Field experiments for the second paddy field with four irrigation schedules and two repeated treatments were conducted at the HsuehChia Experiment Station, ChiaNan Irrigation Association, Taiwan. Experimental results demonstrate that irrigation water requirements for the comparison method, and 7-, 10- and 15-day irrigation schedules were 1248, 993, 848, and 718 mm, respectively. Compared to the conventional method of flooding fields at a 7-day interval, the 10- and 15-day irrigation schedules reduced water requirements by 14.6 and 27.3 %, respectively; however, crop yields decreased by 7 and 15 %, respectively. Based on the results, it was recommended that the ChaiNan Irrigation Association could adopt 10 days irrigation schedule and plant drought-enduring paddy to save irrigation water requirements for the water resource scarcity in southern Taiwan. The CROPWAT model was utilized to simulate the on-farm water balance with a 10-day irrigation schedule for the second paddy field. A comparison of net irrigation water requirements with the 10-day irrigation schedule from model and field experiment were 818 and 848 mm, respectively, and the error was 3.54 %.     

The influence of seepage from canals and paddy fields on the groundwater level of neighboring rotation cropping fields: a case study from the lower Ili River Basin,Kazakhstan

In the large-scale irrigation schemes of the lower Ili River Basin of Kazakhstan, crop rotation combines paddy rice and non-rice crops. Continuous irrigation is practiced in paddy fields, whereas other crops are sustained from groundwater after only limited early irrigation. The water table in non-rice crops is raised by seepage from canals and the flooded paddy fields. We investigated the areal extent to which the groundwater level of non-irrigated fields is influenced by seepage from canals and paddy fields by examining the relationship between distance (from canal and paddy field) and groundwater level in upland fields. The groundwater level was influenced for up to 300 and 400 m from the canals and paddy fields, respectively. Geographic information system analysis of crop and canal patterns in the 11 selected years showed that if the zone of influence is 300 and 400 m from the canals and paddy fields, respectively, the groundwater level of most of the area of upland fields was raised by seepage. We conclude that the water supply to cropping fields by seepage from irrigation canals and paddy fields is adequate, but the spatial distribution of the paddy fields may be an important factor that needs more attention to help improve water use efficiency in this irrigation district.     

Relationship between increment of groundwater level at the beginning of irrigation period and paddy filed area in the Tedori River Alluvial Fan Area, Japan

There are many paddy fields and large amounts of groundwater in the Tedori River Alluvial Fan in Ishikawa Prefecture, Japan. Water infiltration from paddy fields during irrigation may significantly contribute to groundwater recharge. Groundwater recharge is known to be one outcome of paddy farming, and in general is usually related to land use. However, a decreased area of paddy fields because of socioeconomic factors such as urbanization and increasing area of fallow fields has possibly affected the groundwater environment. Evaluation of the quantitative effect of paddy fields on groundwater is necessary for groundwater conservation. This study examined the relationship between differences in the depth of groundwater from just before the irrigation period to just after the first irrigation of paddy fields (increments of groundwater levels) in observation wells and the area of paddy fields around each well. The paddy areas within circular buffer zones, which were delineated at 0.2 km intervals between 0.2 and 2.0 km centered on each observation well, were calculated. A positive relationship was found between the rise in groundwater and the area of paddy field within different buffer zones at most wells. In addition, in the middle or upper part of the fan, the effect of changes in the area of paddy fields surrounding the well on the groundwater level rise was greater than that on the lower part of the fan.     

Improving Rice-Based Cropping Pattern Through Soil Moisture and Integrated Nutrient Management in Mid-Tropical Plain Zone of Tripura,India

An experiment was conducted in three fallow paddy fields situated on the mid-tropical plain zone of a northeastern Indian state(Tripura) to provide rice fallow management options using leftover soil moisture and nutrients. The three experimental fields were managed by growing rice under the system of rice intensification as the rainy season crop and then groundnut, lentil, rapeseed and potato as the post-rainy season crops. Fertilization under the integrated nutrient management system and lifesaving irrigation at critical stages of each post-rainy season crop were provided. Results showed that the field water use efficiency values were 5.93, 2.39, 2.37 and 59.76 kg/(hm2·mm) and that the yield of these crops increased by approximately 20%, 34%, 40% and 20% after applying two lifesaving irrigations in groundnut, lentil, rapeseed and potato, respectively. Therefore, fallow paddy field can provide possible profitable crops during the post-rainy season by utilizing the residual moisture and minimum supplemental irrigation under improved nutrient management practices.     

A GIS-based framework of regional irrigation water demand assessment

Although a lot of research has been performed on estimating irrigation water demand at the on-farm level, far less has been done on irrigation water demand for a region-wide basis, such as for a river basin or an area covering multiple river basins. The capture and management of the spatial variations in related data such as soil, climate, crops, and canal networks is the key to effective and efficient regional irrigation water demand estimations. The Geographic Information System (GIS), with its powerful spatial data management and analysis capabilities is used in this study to extend the scope of on-farm irrigation water estimation into a regional estimation. A command area covering several river basins in southern Taiwan was used to build a model prototype. The model framework shows the capability of the system to estimate regional irrigation water demand with most of the spatial variations preserved. The model also shows the capability for quickly reflecting changes in irrigation water demand in response to changes in cropping patterns, a feature that may be a necessary for regional water resource planning.     

Performance diagnosis of Mae Lao Irrigation Scheme in Thailand (I) Development of Unsteady Irrigation Water Distribution and Consumption model

The Mae Lao Irrigation Scheme is one of the largest irrigation projects in Northern Thailand. According to the field reconnaissance, water shortage usually occurs during the dry season. And it is very difficult to equally distribute available water to the paddy fields from the upstream to the downstream parts of the system. To understand and identify the causes of the problems, the measurement of water level and flow rate along all canals may be effective. However, it is not easy to achieve this in such a large-scale irrigation system. Thus, the numerical simulation becomes the second option. The objective of this study is to identify and quantify the real water shortage causes by developing an Unsteady Irrigation Water Distribution and Consumption model which can simulate the water movement and consumption in the whole irrigation system. The beneficial area of the right main canal is modeled based on the physical aspect of the system. The components of the model consist of canal networks, control structures, and paddy fields. A canal is divided into several portions called reach. The Saint-Venant equations are applied to describe the unsteady water movement in each reach. Flow movement at the control structure is expressed by the boundary condition. The paddy fields are modeled to make paddy block and connected to each reach. The water consumption in each paddy block is estimated by Paddy Tank model. The numerical model is successfully developed showing the ability to simulate the water movement and consumption properties in this irrigation system.     

Spatial-uniform application method of methane fermentation digested slurry with irrigation water in the rice paddy field

Promoting biomass utilization, the objectives of this study were to clarify the spatial distribution of nitrogen, one of the most important fertilizer components in the methane fermentation digested slurry (i.e., the digested slurry), and to establish an effective method to apply spatial-uniformly digested slurry with irrigation water in the rice paddy field. A numerical model describing the unsteady two-dimensional flow and solution transport of paddy irrigation water was introduced. The accuracy of this model was verified with a field observation. The tendencies of the TN simulated in inlet and outlet portions had good agreement with the measured data and the accuracy of the numerical model could be verified. Using the numerical model, scenario analyses were conducted to determine the method for spatial-uniform application of the digested slurry with irrigation water. The simulated results indicated that drainage of the surface water and trenches at the soil surface were effective for spatial-uniform application of the digested slurry with irrigation water in the rice paddy fields. The effect of the trenches was maximized when the surface water of the rice paddy field was drained adequately.     

Numerical simulation on effect of irrigation conditions on water temperature distribution in a paddy field

Water management methods regulate water temperature in paddy fields, which affects rice growth and the environment. To understand the effect of irrigation conditions on water temperature in a paddy field, water temperature distribution under 42 different irrigation models including the use of ICT water management, which enables remote and automatic irrigation, was simulated using a physical model of heat balance. The following results were obtained: (1) Irrigation water temperature had a more significant effect on paddy water temperature close to the inlet. As the distance from the inlet increased, the water temperature converged to an equilibrium, which was determined by meteorological conditions and changes in water depth. (2) Increasing the irrigation rate with higher irrigation water amount increased the extent and magnitude of the effects of the irrigation water temperature. (3) When total irrigation water amount was the same, increasing the irrigation rate decreased the time-averaged temperature gradient effect over time across the paddy field. (4) Irrigation during the lowest and highest paddy water temperatures effectively decreased and increased the equilibrium water temperature, respectively. The results indicate that irrigation management can be used to alter and control water temperature in paddy fields, and showed the potential of ICT water management in enhancing the effect of water management in paddy fields. Our results demonstrated that a numerical simulation using a physical model for water temperature distribution is useful for revealing effective water management techniques under various irrigation methods and meteorological conditions.

     

Effects of water-saving irrigation on weed infestation and diversity in paddy fields in East China

The purpose of the article is to investigate the effects of water-saving irrigation on weed infestation and diversity in paddy fields; a two-year field experiment was conducted in Gaoyou Irrigation District, China. The responses of two irrigation treatments, controlled irrigation (CI) and traditional irrigation (TI), were observed and compared. The irrigation water use, yield, weed density, coverage ratio, height, species richness, density, dominant species, Shannon–Wiener index, and Pielou index were examined to analyze the water productivity, weed infestation, and diversity in paddy fields under the two treatments. The results showed that the water conditions were similar before the late tillering stage, and thereafter the CI fields were alternatively dry and wet with shallow standing water and low soil water content, while the TI fields were mostly continuously flooded by deep standing water and high soil water content. Irrigation water use for CI was 46.8% lower than TI. The CI treatment reduced weed density by 38.0%, decreased coverage ratio by 13.8%, and resulted in a 39.0% increase in weed height. Fewer species were found in CI fields than TI fields. The Shannon–Wiener index decreased by 11.5%, and the Pielou index increased by 3.2%. The changed water regime under CI not only impeded the growth of dominant species but also placed the whole weed community at a relatively stable level with reduced weed density. Meanwhile, aquatic weeds were well controlled; however, semi-aquatic weeds became the dominant species. In general, CI effectively reduced the risk of weed outbreaks, and weed diversity also decreased when it reduced irrigation water use.     

Strategies and engineering adaptions to disseminate SRI methods in large-scale irrigation systems in Eastern Indonesia

The system of rice intensification (SRI) developed in Madagascar has been controversial in part because there have been no large-scale, long-term evaluations of the impact of its alternative methods. This paper summarizes experience with the dissemination of SRI practices across eight provinces in Eastern Indonesia over nine seasons from 2002 to 2006 under a major irrigation project. The Decentralized Irrigation System Improvement Project (DISIMP) was financed by the Japanese Government with project management by a Nippon Koei consultant team. SRI has been introduced in Indonesia via several organizations and in different parts of the country starting in 2000. The evaluation reported here, made by the DISIMP technical assistance team, is based on data from 12,133 on-farm comparison trials that covered a total area of 9,429 ha. Under SRI management, average paddy yield increase was 3.3 t/ha (78%). This was achieved with about 40% reduction in water use, 50% reduction in chemical fertilizer applications, and 20% lower costs of production. The farmers whom DISIMP was assisting to take up SRI were usually cultivating their paddy fields individually within irrigation systems where it was difficult to reduce water applications as recommended for SRI. Accordingly, innovations had to be made in soil and water management to create relatively aerobic soil conditions so that farmers could get the more productive rice phenotypes expected from SRI practice. This article describes the modifications made to adapt SRI concepts, pointing to the value of introducing in-field ditches, which was confirmed through paddy tract surveys. This experience and analysis showed how SRI methods could be utilized within irrigation systems where water management was not (yet) tailored to SRI production practices. Subsequently, modifications in irrigation system management are being made to be more supportive of SRI cultivation.     

Evaluation of the management practice for controlling herbicide runoff from paddy fields using intermittent and spillover-irrigation schemes

Two water management practices, an intermittent irrigation scheme using automatic irrigation system (AI) and a spillover-irrigation scheme (SI), were compared for the fate and transport of commonly used herbicides, mefenacet (MF) and bensulfuron-methyl (BSM) in experimental paddy plots. Maximum mefenacet concentrations in paddy water were 660 and 540 μg L⁻¹ for AI and SI plot, respectively. The corresponding values for bensulfuron-methyl were 46.0 and 42.0 μg L⁻¹. Dissipation of the herbicides in paddy water appeared to follow the first-order kinetics with half-lives (DT₅₀) of 1.9–4.5 days and DT₉₀ (90% mass dissipation) of 7.8–11.3 days. The AI plot had no surface drainage, hence no herbicide was lost through paddy-water discharge. However, SI plot lost about 38 and 49% of applied mefenacet and bensulfuron-methyl, respectively. The intermittent irrigation scheme using automatic irrigation system with a high drainage gate was recommended to be a best management practice for controlling the herbicide losses from paddy fields. The paddy field managed by spillover-irrigation scheme may cause significant water and herbicide losses depending on the volume of irrigation and precipitation. The water holding period after herbicide application was suggested to be at least 10 days according to the DT₉₀ index.     

稻作区灌溉水流传播的杂草种子与稻田土壤杂草种子库的关系

选择典型稻作区,对灌溉水流传播的杂草种子的种类和数量进行取样调查,并与田埂、灌溉水渠周围生境、下茬麦田的杂草群落及稻田土壤杂草种子库进行比较分析,以研究自然条件下灌溉水流传播的杂草种子与土壤杂草种子库及其他生境杂草群落间的相互关系。 有14科21种杂草种子随灌溉水流输入稻田,这些杂草种子主要隶属禾本科、报春花科、藜科、蓼科等。土壤杂草种子库中共检出19科41种杂草种子,含有所有其他生境中杂草的种子。灌溉水流传播的杂草种子与田埂上、灌溉水渠周围生境、下茬麦田杂草群落及稻田土壤种子库的杂草群落间相似性较高,Sorensen指数均在0.5以上。     

Evaluation of water intake rate using the diffusive tank model in the low-lying paddy area

The subject of this study is water management in low-lying paddy fields. The objective of this study is to quantify the water requirement, and estimate an appropriate volume and facilitate management of irrigation water in areas where it is difficult to estimate the flow rate continuously. A field observation was conducted at a 14-ha study site located in the Kuwabara area, Fukuoka City, southwest of Japan, to evaluate water management conditions in the command area of the reservoir. This site near the reservoir was selected, because it was impossible to understand the water supply situation in the entire command area. The farmers in this region have been unable to retain sufficient irrigation water. The observation results indicate that the water depth fluctuates widely in every irrigation canal. The canals are frequently empty because rotational irrigation is conducted by water managers; this makes quantifying the flow rate in the irrigation canal very difficult. To quantify the water requirement, an improved tank model was introduced. The accuracy of the model was examined by comparing the observed and calculated ponding depths at a paddy field. The simulation results agreed with the observed data. Using this model, water management for the reduction of water managers’ labor was simulated. Simulation results indicated that rotational irrigation effectively reduces labor and saves irrigation water.     

Utilizing rainfall and alternate wetting and drying irrigation for high water productivity in irrigated lowland paddy rice in southern Taiwan

Taiwan’s average annual rainfall is high compared to other countries around the world; however, it is considered a country with great demand for water resources. Rainfall along with alternate wetting and drying irrigation is proposed to minimize water demand and maximize water productivity for lowland paddy rice cultivation in southern Taiwan. A field experiment was conducted to determine the most suitable ponded water depth for enhancing water saving in paddy rice irrigation. Different ponded water depths treatments (T_2 cm, T_3 cm, T_4 cm and T_5 cm) were applied weekly from transplanting to early heading using a complete randomized block design with four replications. The highest rainwater productivity (2.07 kg/m³) was achieved in T_5 cm and the lowest in T_2 cm (1.62 kg/m³). The highest total water productivity, (0.75 kg/m³) and irrigation water productivity (1.40 kg/m³) was achieved in T_2 cm. The total amount of water saved in T_4 cm, T_3 cm and T_2 cm was 20, 40, and 60%, respectively. Weekly application of T_4 cm ponded water depth from transplanting to heading produced the lowest yield reduction (1.57%) and grain production loss (0.06 kg) having no significant impact on yield loss compared to T_5 cm. Thus, we assert that the weekly application of T_4 cm along with rainfall produced the best results for reducing lowland paddy rice irrigation water use and matching the required crop water.     

Characteristics of effluent load from a watershed including irrigation ponds

This paper describes an attempt to estimate the mass budget of irrigation ponds within a watershed and the possibilities to control the effluent load of nutrients from the watershed located in the Kyotanabe area. The paddy field lots were irrigated by the ponds and several mountain streams. In the study watershed, there were two ponds located on the upper and lower sides of a paddy area. Water could be pumped up from the lower pond to the upper pond as necessary. At the ponds, the total amount of nitrogen and phosphorus in the inflow loads including the sediment release was larger than those in the outflow loads. In SS, the effect of load reduction in the ponds was high. It is assumed that organic load reduction was not expected in the ponds. The study result indicates that it is possible to remove the nutrients in the ponds when a larger amount of water is pumped up than when the ponds are only in irrigation use. Moreover, the removal capacities of the nutrients could probably be increased in both ponds by controlling the amount of sediment releases. Electronic Publication     

Effect of SRI methods on water use,NPS pollution discharge,and GHG emission in Korean trials

Paddy and Water Environment - A field experiment with a locally-bred Japonica rice cultivar was conducted in 2011 to measure the effect of paddy irrigation management in Korea on rice yield, water...     

增氧处理对稻田土壤微生物量碳、氮和酶活性的影响

【目的】探讨增氧方式对稻田土壤微生物量碳、氮和土壤酶活性的影响。【方法】以中旱221(旱稻)、中浙优8号(水稻)和IR45765-3B(深水稻)为材料,研究微纳米气泡水增氧灌溉、干湿交替灌溉、淹水灌溉对稻田土壤微生物量碳、氮,土壤氮代谢作用强度和土壤氮素转化相关酶活性的影响。【结果】微纳米气泡水增氧灌溉和干湿交替灌溉可以显著提高稻田土壤微生物生物量碳、氮,中旱221、中浙优8号和IR45765-3B的增氧处理较淹水灌溉处理微生物生物量碳、氮分别增加了30.0%~46.1%和7.1%~92.1%,并且增氧处理降低了3个水稻品种的微生物量碳氮比;与淹水灌溉相比,微纳米气泡水增氧灌溉和干湿交替灌溉有助于提高稻田土壤脲酶、蔗糖酶、过氧化氢酶、蛋白酶、羟胺还原酶活性,降低硝酸还原酶活性和亚硝酸还原酶活性。【结论】微纳米气泡水增氧灌溉和干湿交替灌溉改善稻田土壤的氧化特性,提高土壤酶活性、微生物量碳、氮和硝化强度,有助于改善土壤环境和肥力状况,协调了C、N代谢的平衡。     

Pesticide discharge and water management in a paddy catchment in Japan

Concentrations of several pesticides were monitored in a paddy block and in the Kose river, which drains a paddy catchment in Fukuoka prefecture, Japan. Detailed water management in the block was also monitored to evaluate its effect on the pesticide contamination. The concentrations of applied pesticides in both block irrigation channel and drainage canal increased to tens of μg/L shortly after their applications. The increase in pesticide concentrations was well correlated with the open of irrigation and drainage gates in the pesticide-applied paddy plots only 1–3 days after pesticide application. High concentration of other pesticides, mainly herbicides, was also observed in the inflow irrigation and drainage waters, confirming the popularity of early irrigation and drainage after pesticide application in the area. The requirement of holding water after pesticide application (as a best management practice) issued by the authority was thus not properly followed. In a larger scale of the paddy catchment, the concentration of pesticides also increased significantly to several μg/L in the water of the Kose river shortly after the start of the pesticide application period either in downstream or mid–upstream areas, confirming the effect of current water management to the water quality. More extension and enforcement on water management should be done in order to control pesticide pollution from rice cultivation in Japan.