Rheological properties of typical chernozems (Kursk oblast) under different land uses

Rheological parameters of humus horizons from typical chernozems under different land use—on a virgin land (unmown steppe) and under an oak forest, long-term black fallow, and agricultural use—have been studied by the amplitude sweep method with an MCR-302 modular rheometer at water contents corresponding to swelling limit and liquid limit. From the curves of elastic and viscous moduli, the ranges of elastic and viscoelastic (plastic) behavior of soil pastes—as well as that of transition from viscoelastic to viscous behavior—have been determined. It has been shown that the rheological behavior is largely determined by the content of organic matter, which can act as a binding agent structuring the interparticle bonds and as a lubricant in the viscous-flow (plastic) state of soil pastes. Soil samples enriched with organic matter (virgin land, oak forest, forest belt) have a more plastic behavior and a higher resistance to loads. Soil samples with the lower content of organic matter (long-term fallow, plowland) are characterized by a more rigid cohesion of particles and a narrower range of load resistance. Soil pastes at the water content of liquid limit have a stronger interparticle cohesion and a more brittle behavior than at the water content of swelling limit. Methodological aspects of testing soil pastes at the constant sample thickness and the controlled normal load have been considered. For swelling soil samples, tests under controlled normal load are preferred.     

Earthworm effects on selected physical and chemical properties of soil aggregates

Summary Some physical and chemical properties of 1-to 2-mm aggregates obtained from casts and the burrow-wall material of the earthworm species Lumbricus terrestris, Aporrectodea longa, and Aporrectodea caliginosa were determined in order to show the effects of earthworms on the stabilization of soil aggregates. The results were compared with those of the natural soil from the Ap horizon of a Parabraunerde (Luvisol, FAO). Both the tensile strength and the water stability of aggregates from casts and burrow-wall material were reduced compared with those of the natural aggregates but were increased compared with those of remoulded aggregates. These results indicate that to a great extent existing bonds are destroyed by earthworm ingestion. Nevertheless, earthworm activities are advantageous for the stabilization of reformed aggregates. The coarse sand fraction is reduced by selective ingestion by earthworms. The organic C content is increased by 4.1–21.0% for burrow-wall material and by 21.2–43.0% for casts. The carbonate content of aggregates from casts and burrow-wall material of L. terrestris was reduced by more than 50%, while that of A. longa showed no noticeable changes and that of A. caliginosa was increased by more than 60%. The total content of polysaccharides was increased by 35–87% for casts and by 33–46% for the burrow-wall material of all earthworm species. The most frequently detected monosaccharides were glucose, galactose, and glucosamine. L. terrestris appeared to have the strongest effect on the interparticle bonding of the reformed aggregates, measured both as tensile strength and water stability, followed by A. longa and A. caliginosa.     

The essential mechanics of capillary crumbling of structured agricultural soils

In soil loosening processes like seedbed preparation, significant soil crumbling is often desired. A better understanding of the mechanics of crumbling is necessary to optimize crumbling operations, particularly in structured agricultural soils in which capillary bonds are dominant. To this end, a model of the mechanics of capillary crumbling in structured agricultural soils is developed. Four sets of experiments on cylindrical soil samples were carried out to investigate the validity of the model and soil crumbling characteristics as influenced by freezing, thawing and drying. After preparation and sample pre-treatment, the samples were dried to different moisture contents and then tested to determine soil bonding strength. Soil water suction was also monitored at testing as were sample dimensions at different stages of experimentation. The model was found to account satisfactorily for the mechanics of capillary crumbling in structured agricultural soils. Freezing had the effect of reducing the strength of inter-aggregate bonds whilst preserving the integrity of soil aggregates during crumbling.     

粘性土壤剪切强度与容重和含水量之间关系的研究

本文在Mitchell等人关于土壤剪切强度唯一性研究的基础上,利用热力学第二定律作指导,由试验和分析建立了剪切强度与热扩散系数之间关系。据此关系,综合De Vries和佐滕用三相比表达热扩散系数的方程式,得到一个四参数剪切强度-干容重-含水量模型。对于一种粘土在各种容重和含水量下进行了三轴剪切试验,本模型拟合实测数据的精度(用相关系数表示)皆在0.9以上。     

Physical properties of soddy-podzolic soils in a long-term field experiment

The main physical properties of soddy-podzolic soils in a long-term field experiment have been studied. It is shown that their changes under the impact of a century-long application of lime, fertilizers, and manure have been relatively small. Reliable differences in the parameters of approximation of the dependence of penetration resistance on the soil water content in the variant with regular application of organic fertilizers have been revealed. This attests to stronger interparticle bonds (within the studied moisture range) in this variant. Interparticle bonds in the control variant and in the variant with lime application tend to increase with a decrease in the soil water content more significantly than those in other experimental variants. This may be due to the coarser texture of the soil in the control variant and to the aggregation of soil particles under the impact of lime in the variant with lime application.     

The method of cohesion determination in soil aggregates

Theoretical fundamentals and experimental methods to study the strength of water-stable bonds in soil aggregates are discussed. The strength of water-stable aggregates characterized by cohesion is proved to be one of the important structural and mechanical properties of soil. The regular variation of this parameter inthe soils under study is related to the content of humus and physical clay.     

Structure and stability of soil aggregates

The formation and disintegration of macroaggregates into water-stable particles in a wide range of soil water contents—from the hygroscopic moisture to the capillary saturation moisture—were analyzed. It was found that the disintegration of macroaggregates into water-stable particles follows an exponential law. As the system becomes a three-phase system, neighboring particles in the macroaggregate are pressed together due to capillary pressure, and strong molecular bonds are formed. The disintegration curve of macroaggregates is an integral informative characteristic, which reflects the dynamics of changes in the strength properties of the macroaggregates.     

Deformation and compaction of elemental soil volumes and effects on mechanical soil properties

The response of soil to loading is discussed in terms of the concepts of stable and unstable behaviour and of dry and wet compaction. Relationships between compaction and deformation and strength-determining factors (such as bulk density, water content and interparticle bonds) and soil qualities (such as moisture retention, hydraulic conductivity, penetration resistance and erodibility) are examined. Methods for measuring compactability and deformability, and ways of presenting results, are discussed. Moisture-pressure-volume diagrams, supplemented with information on physical soil properties, will be important in optimizing soil physical condition.     

Retrogradation of Starches from Different Botanical Sources

Retrogradation in 2% pastes prepared from unmodified commercial starches by cooking at 98–100°C under low shear, then held at 4°C for 56 days, was examined by turbidometric analysis and light microscopy. Turbidometric analysis revealed that retrogradation rates followed the order of wheat, common corn > rice, tapioca, potato ≫ waxy maize. Microstructures of stored pastes were examined both before and after centrifugation. Granule remnant morphologies and fresh and stored paste microstructures were unique to each starch examined. Fresh pastes from amylose-containing starches were dominated by networked amylose that condensed into higher density aggregates upon storage. Unique phenomena seen in some stored pastes included interactions of granular remnants with aggregated amylose, composite networks of co-associated amylopectin and amylose, and slight birefringence regained by granule remnants. Microstructural changes in stored pastes could be related to changes in turbidity and to the results of other methods used to quantitate retrogradation.     

Rheological Properties of Automorphic and Semihydromorphic Cryometamorphic Northern Taiga Soils in Northeastern European Russia (Komi Republic)

Soil pastes at the water content corresponding to the maximum swelling of samples from different genetic horizons of cryometamorphic soils―surface-gleyic iron-illuvial svetlozem (Folic Albic Stagnosol) and peaty and peat humus-impregnated gleyic svetlozems (Histic Gleyic Stagnosols)―have been studied with an MCR-302 modular rheometer (Anton Paar, Austria). It has been found that the strongest interparticle bonds are formed in the horizons of cryometamorphic soils characterized by high contents of humic substances and organomineral Al–Fe–humus compounds. These are horizons of podzol microprofile (Eg and BHF) in iron-illuvial svetlozem and a humus-impregnated horizon (ELhi,g) in peaty and peat svetlozems. Organomineral Al–Fe–humus compounds, as well as the seasonal freezing of soils, determine the elastic-brittle character of interparticle interactions. The contents of clay fractions, exchangeable bases, and organic and organomineral substances impart viscoelastic properties to these contacts. An enhancement of elastic-brittle properties of soil is observed under the impact of gleying and freezing. The threefold decrease of the structural interaction parameter (∫Z) when going from automorphic to semihydromorphic conditions indicates a decrease in the resistance of peaty and peat svetlozems to mechanical loads under increasing hydromorphism compared to iron-illuvial svetlozems.     

水稻土的力学性质与水分含量的关系

土壤的抗剪强度和抗压强度以及变形性质是决定耕作阻力、机具的通行性能及耕作质量的重要因素,也是机具正确设计所必须考虑的因素。过去对于耕作土壤的强度研究,多从旱地的松散状况出发,把土体的粘结只归因于水膜的表面张力和水膜的数量,并得出结论:土壤强度与含水量呈抛物线关系。对于搅动后土壤粘结的机制,认为包括水膜粘结和分子引力粘结两种^[1]。最近山中金次郎指出^[2],在这二种不同粘结机制的转折处有明显的破折现象,但对水稻土的情况研究极少。     

The role of moisture content in the stability of soil aggregates from a temperate silty soil to raindrop impact

Aggregate stability to drop impact is of fundamental importance to many aspects of the soil system, in particular rainsplash erosion. The role of moisture content is considered by the use of a single drop simulator on soil aggregates of known moisture content selected from the Hamble series. Results indicate a negative logarithmic relationship between time to breakdown and specific moisture content. In addition the variability of the results drastically declines with increasing moisture content. The results are explained in terms of distribution of moisture within the aggregates prior to experimentation.     

Temporal and spatial variability in root reinforcement of streambanks: Accounting for soil shear strength and moisture

Riparian vegetation exerts a number of mechanical and hydrologic controls on bank stability, which can affect the delivery of sediment to channels. Estimates of root reinforcement of soils have commonly been attained using perpendicular root models that simply sum root tensile strengths and consider these as an add-on factor to soil strength. A major limitation of such perpendicular models is that tensile strength and resistance is wrongly considered to be independent of soil type and moisture, and therefore variations according to these bank properties are omitted in conventional models. In reality, during mass failure of a streambank, some roots break, and some roots are pulled out of the soil intact; the relative proportions of roots that break or pull out are determined by a combination of soil moisture and shear strength. In this paper an equation to predict the frictional resistance of root–soil bonds was tested against field data collected at Long Creek, MS, under two soil moisture conditions. The root pullout equations were then included in the root-reinforcement model, RipRoot, and bank stability model runs for Goodwin Creek, MS, were carried out in order to examine the effects of spatial and temporal variations in soil shear strength and rooting density, on streambank factor of safety. Model results showed that at smaller root diameters breaking forces exceeded pullout forces, but at larger root diameters pullout forces exceed breaking forces. The threshold diameter between root pullout and root breaking varied with soil shear strength, with increasing soil shear strength leading to a greater proportion of roots failing by breaking instead of pullout. Root-reinforcement estimates were shown to reflect changes in soil shear strength, for example, brought about by variations in soil matric suction. Resulting Factor of safety (F_S) values for the bank during the period modeled ranged from 1.36 to 1.74 with 1000 grass roots/m², compared to a range of 0.97 to 1.37 for the non-vegetated bank. Root reinforcement was shown to increase bank stability under the entire range of soil moisture conditions modeled. However, the magnitude of root reinforcement varied in both space and time as determined by soil shear strength and soil moisture.     

连续失水-复水中不同粒径保水剂对土壤结构和水分特性的影响

为明确土壤干湿交替环境下保水剂与土壤颗粒之间的作用方式及保水剂对土壤结构和水分有效性的影响。通过土柱模拟试验,研究连续失水—复水条件下,不同粒径(0.85,0.6～0.85,0.30～0.45 mm)保水剂对土壤水分特性、土壤团聚体分布和结构稳定性的作用,以及保水剂—土壤混合体价键结构的微观变化特征。结果表明:第1次(T1)和第2次(T2)失水取样阶段,除T2阶段的最小粒径处理外,其余各粒径保水剂促使土壤相对含水量较对照显著增加72.9%以上(P0.05)。保水剂粒径大小和土壤水分状况均会影响保水剂对土壤供水能力的作用效果,粒径最小的保水剂改变土壤持续吸水和供水的能力较差,促进土壤水稳性大团聚体组成和团聚结构稳定的性能最优。在连续的干湿交替影响下,保水剂与土壤的作用加剧,壤土中的Si-O-Si键、-OH、蒙脱石和石英等矿物胶体会进入到保水剂网状结构中,反应的剧烈程度会影响土壤水稳性大团聚体的形成和稳定性。初步分析认为,随着反复失水—复水进程,更多黏粒矿物对保水剂分子结构的破坏,是减弱保水剂吸持水性能的主要因素之一。     

陕南坡改梯填筑土的击实特性与抗剪强度试验研究

陕南梯地建设中存在的主要问题是土坎梯地垮坎严重,为了从土性方面探索梯地垮坎防治的途径与措施,该文按土工试验规程规定的方法测定了土料的主要物性物态指标,研究了修地筑坎土料的击实特性和抗剪强度与主要物性物态指标之间的关系。研究表明,陕南几种典型筑坎土料的最大干密度和相应的最优含水量与土粒平均粒径d₅₀、小于0.005mm土粒含量P、塑性指数I_p、塑限含水量ω_p之间存在显著的相关关系:填筑土的抗剪强度主要受含水量控制,其强度指标与填筑含水量之间存在显著的线性负相关关系。分析表明,含水量对抗剪强度的削弱效应远大于干密度对抗剪强度的加强度效应     

Effect of the water temperature and soil moisture on the erodibility of chernozem samples: A model experiment

The close almost functional relationship of the erosion rate and, hence, the erodibility of model soil samples with the temperature of the water used in the experiments has been shown. This suggests that the rupture of bonds between the particles of eroded soil samples is due to the electrostatic forces appearing between the monomolecular water layers around the adjacent soil aggregates similarly oriented with respect to the soil solid phase rather than to the hydraulic forces. The erosion parameters of the samples also strongly depend on the soil moisture. The lowest erosion rate of the heavy loamy chernozem samples is observed at an initial water content of 22–24%. The erosion rate increases and the variability of the results is reduced with both decreasing and increasing the initial water content.     

土壤有机碳稳定性影响因素的研究进展

增加土壤碳汇是应对全球气候变化的有效措施,作为土壤碳汇来源之一的有机碳在其中发挥重要作用。过去几十年,土壤有机碳的分子结构性质被认为是预测有机碳在土壤中循环的主要标准。然而最近的研究结果表明有机碳的分子结构并非绝对地控制着土壤有机碳的稳定,而土壤环境因子与有机碳的相互作用显著降低了土壤有机碳被降解的可能性。土壤微生物不仅参与有机碳的降解,其产物本身也是土壤有机碳的重要组成成分。非生物因子直接或间接地控制着土壤有机碳的稳定,包括土壤中的无机颗粒、无机环境以及养分状况等。其中,有机碳与土壤矿物的吸附作用和土壤团聚体的闭蓄作用被普遍认为高效地保护了有机碳。土壤矿物的吸附作用取决于其自身的矿物学性质和有机碳的化学性质。土壤团聚体在保护有机碳的同时也促进了有机碳与矿物的吸附,而有机-矿物络合物同样可以参与形成团聚体。此外,土壤无机环境也影响着有机碳循环。总之,土壤有机碳的稳定取决于有机碳与周围环境的相互作用。同时,有机碳的结构性质也受控于环境因素。然而,无论有机碳的结构性质,还是其所处的生物与非生物环境,都是生态系统的基本属性,且各属性间相互影响、相互作用。因此,土壤有机碳的稳定是生态系统的一种特有性质。     

Effect of soil density,tensile strength,and water infiltration on the rupture rate of interaggregate bonds

The effect of density of monofraction samples from the plow horizon of leached chernozem on the rupture rate of interaggregate bonds in water has been studied. The rupture rate of bonds has been determined in a hydraulic flume by alternating passive phases of 1–5 min in duration, during which the sample occurs under a nonmoving water layer, with short (15-s long) active phases with a water flow in the flume. Samples have also been tested for tensile strength and water infiltration rate. It has been shown that the rupture rate of interaggregate bonds is related by a hyperbolic law to the soil density and by an exponential law to the rate of water infiltration to the soil. The latter relationship varies within a year and, hence, can be used as reliable parameter for predicting the seasonal dynamics of soil erodibility.     

Productive Efficiency of Decanters with Short and Variable Dynamic Pressure Cones

This paper presents the results of experimental trials carried out on third-generation, variable dynamic pressure cone decanters to assess machine performance and adjust the process parameters for optimum extraction yield.The results obtained led to the following conclusions: the regulation of the differential velocity screw/bowl allows a better performance of the decanter at low dilutions of the olive paste; it is possible to obtain high efficiency at a low dilution of the olive paste achieving a higher minor compounds content and the more advanced system of regulation leads to better results according to the variations of the ratio between liquid and solid phases, thus optimising operational performances in relation to the rheological features of olive pastes.The results indicate the potential for the optimisation of oil extraction efficiency from pastes obtained with a more precise choice of solid particle dimensions during the crushing phase.     

Steady-state denitrification in aggregated soils: a mathematical model

A model is presented which calculates steady-state denitrification rates as a function of more readily-measured soil parameters: the soil moisture characteristic, the probability distributions of aggregate size and oxygen reduction potential, the nitrate concentration, and the moisture tension. The model does not depend on curve-fitting. It indicates that aggregates of intermediate size may be more efficient denitrifiers than very large ones. It provides a theoretical explanation for the reported observation of proportionality between denitrification rate and calculated anaerobic fraction of incubated soil cores. This proportionality extends over some five orders of magnitude and appears to be independent of moisture tension. Calculated whole-soil denitrification rates are affected principally by soil texture, structure and moisture tension, and less so by nitrate concentration. In addition to predicting denitrification rates, the model may be extended to predict the fraction of the gaseous products of denitrification emitted as nitrous oxide.