双硫钙合剂对土壤微生物学特性和酶活性的影响

双硫钙合剂(TSCa)是由福美双、硫磺、碳酸钙按一定比例充分混合配置而成的一种土壤消毒剂.本文通过室内培养试验研究了双硫钙合剂对土壤微生物生物量、酶活性的影响及其变化特征.研究结果表明,TSCa能在短期内降低土壤中微生物生物量氮、生物量磷,抑制土壤过氧化氢酶、脲酶、磷酸酶的活性,其抑制和影响程度随施用量的增加而加大.TSCa对土壤微生物生物量和土壤酶活性的影响主要表现在前30 d,30 d以后影响程度逐渐缩小,到第40 d时影响几乎消失.     

添加木醋液对沙地土壤微生物生物量和酶活性的影响

[目的]探讨沙地添加木醋液后土壤微生物生物量和酶活性的变化,为沙地土壤生物学质量的改良提供理论依据。[方法]采用盆栽植草培养法,以添加自来水为对照,对沙地添加不同稀释倍数(200,150,100,50,20)木醋液后的土壤可溶性有机碳、氮和酚,土壤微生物生物量碳氮以及土壤酶活性进行研究。[结果]向沙土添加木醋液可以显著降低土壤pH值,显著提高土壤易氧化碳、土壤水溶性碳氮、土壤可溶性酚以及无机氮的含量。在添加木醋液稀释高于50倍范围内,随木醋液稀释倍数降低,土壤微生物生物量碳氮增加以及β-糖苷酶、碱性磷酸酶和脱氢酶活性提高。添加稀释20倍的木醋液,导致土壤微生物生物量碳氮以及β-糖苷酶、碱性磷酸酶和脱氢酶活性有所降低。在高于20的稀释倍数范围内,随着施用木醋液稀释倍数的降低,α-糖苷酶、亮氨酸氨基肽酶、酸性磷酸酶和酚氧化酶的活性有显著增加的趋势。[结论]添加不同稀释倍数的木醋液会影响沙地土壤微生物生物量和酶活性。     

黄土丘陵区沙棘人工林土壤养分及酶活性季节变化

为分析不同年限沙棘人工林的土壤养分和酶活性的时空变化规律,采用时空互代法,以志丹县金丁镇不同种植年限沙棘人工林(20年生沙棘林、15年生沙棘林、5年生沙棘林)为研究对象,以谷子地作为对照,研究了土壤养分和酶活性季节变化、空间分布及其相关关系。结果表明：随着种植年限的增加,沙棘人工林显著地增加了土壤有机质、碱解氮、有效磷、有效钾和酶活性。土壤养分和酶活性具有表聚性,随着土层加深含量在下降且土层间差异显著。沙棘人工林和谷子地土壤养分和酶活性均有明显的季节变化特征。0—30 cm土层土壤有机质表现为春季和秋季较高,夏季和冬季较低。碱解氮和有效磷均为春季最高,秋季最低,而有效钾为冬季最高,夏季最低。土壤脲酶季节变化规律为春夏较高,秋冬季较低。蔗糖酶活性春冬季较高,夏秋季较低。过氧化氢酶呈现出与脲酶和蔗糖酶不同的响应特征。土壤养分与土壤酶相关性密切,土壤脲酶和蔗糖酶可以作为评价土壤肥力的指标。综上,在陕北黄土丘陵区,营造沙棘林年限越长,提高土壤养分和酶活性效果越明显。     

生物质炭长期施用对旱地红壤微生物特性及理化性质的影响

为了解生物质炭施于旱地红壤较长时间后对土壤物理、化学及微生物特性的影响,以江西典型旱地红壤为对象,采用田间长期定位试验的方法观察了不同用量生物质炭(0、2.5、5、10、20、30 t hm~(-2)和40 t hm~(-2))在施用4年后旱地红壤基础理化性质、土壤微生物生物量碳、氮、土壤基础呼吸强度及微生物商、微生物代谢熵等的变化。结果表明,施用生物质炭4年后,旱地红壤pH、有机碳、全氮、微生物生物量碳和生物量氮均随生物质炭施用量的增加呈上升趋势,土壤容重、微生物碳氮比呈下降趋势。以生物质炭用量40 t hm~(-2)时的改良效果最好,与对照相比,土壤容重显著(P0.05)降低了0.17 g cm-3,微生物碳氮比显著降低了7.97,土壤pH、有机碳、全氮、微生物生物量碳和生物量氮分别显著提高了6.1%、47%、21.5%、43.3%和162.6%。试验证明施用生物质炭较长时间后对旱地红壤的改良效果依旧良好,并且生物质炭施用量越高,对土壤理化性质和微生物特性的影响越显著。     

燕沟流域土壤微生物学性质对植被恢复过程的响应

以黄土高原丘陵区陕北延安燕沟流域为例,研究了退耕地土壤微生物生物量对植被恢复过程的响应。结果表明,随植被恢复年限的增加,植被盖度、多度和物种数均呈现先增加后减少然后又增加的趋势。同对照农地相比,表层(0—5 cm)土壤呼吸速率和土壤微生物生物量均明显增加。表层土壤呼吸速率和微生物量碳、氮、磷分别比对照农地增加31.61%3~60.75%和15.19%5~12.81%、122.91%6~97.15%、193.5%2~068.17%。表层土壤呼吸速率对植被恢复的响应是在植被恢复初期(02~9年),随植被恢复年限的增加而增加;植被恢复305~5年期间,随植被恢复年限的增加而减少;而植被恢复55年以后,又随植被恢复年限的增加而增加。植被恢复过程中,土壤微生物量碳、氮和磷的变化与土壤呼吸速率变化趋势类似。除植被恢复8和16年外,植被恢复年限间的土壤呼吸速率、呼吸熵和微生物量碳、氮、磷均有显著性差异。表层土壤呼吸速率与土壤微生物量氮、磷呈极显著相关,土壤微生物量碳与土壤微生物量氮呈显著相关;而土壤呼吸熵与呼吸速率和微生物量碳、氮、磷相关性不明显。     

苜蓿草地土壤干层对土壤脲酶活性和土壤蛋白酶活性的影响

从2000年10月到2004年10月,通过大田试验研究了半干旱黄土高原地区4年生苜蓿草地、14年生苜蓿草地、苜蓿-作物轮作农田以及常规耕作农田中土壤全氮含量、土壤微生物量碳和氮含量、和土壤脲酶活性和土壤蛋白酶活性。结果表明,土壤微生物量碳和氮含量苜蓿草地最高,其次苜蓿-作物轮作系统,而常规耕作农田最低。土壤尿酶活性和土壤蛋白酶活性14年生苜蓿草地显著低于4年生苜蓿草地和苜蓿-作物轮作系统。土壤含水量14年生苜蓿草地显著低于其它处理。长时期苜蓿草地出现的土壤干层严重影响着土壤尿酶和土壤蛋白酶活性,威胁着土壤氮素的转化。与常规耕作相比,苜蓿-作物轮作系统不但土壤微生物量较高,而且土壤酶活性也较高。     

乙草胺对土壤微生物数量和酶活性的影响

采用室内瓶培养试验,研究了乙草胺施用对土壤微生物数量及酶活性的影响。结果表明:乙草胺施用初期对土壤细菌和放线菌数量有明显刺激作用,但施用30d时高施用量处理(30mg·kg-1)呈明显抑制作用,之后各处理放线菌恢复到对照水平,而对细菌的抑制作用一直持续到60d;乙草胺对土壤真菌数量呈"抑制-恢复-刺激"的作用趋势。乙草胺施用初期对土壤脱氢酶产生一定刺激作用,45d后高施用量处理呈明显抑制作用,一直持续到60d;土壤过氧化氢酶对乙草胺不敏感,而转化酶和脲酶对乙草胺施入初期较敏感;低施用量处理对转化酶有抑制作用,高施用量处理对转化酶有刺激作用,各处理对脲酶都有抑制作用。     

不同施肥措施对重庆茶园土壤微生物学特性的影响

为探讨长期不同施肥措施对茶园土壤微生物学特性的影响,通过定位施肥试验,于春茶、夏茶、秋茶和冬管期,采集施用菌渣、生物炭＋复合肥、有机肥、生物炭有机肥和复合肥(对照)为基肥,脲甲醛缓释肥为追肥的茶园土壤,研究不同施肥措施对重庆茶园土壤微生物生物量碳(MBC)、微生物生物量氮(MBN)含量和β-葡萄糖苷酶(BG)、β-纤维二糖苷酶(CBH)、蔗糖酶(INV)和脲酶(URE)4种碳氮转化酶活性的影响。结果表明:土壤MBC、MBN含量和酶活性均随茶叶不同生长期表现出明显的动态变化,与对照相比,有机肥配施缓释肥显著提高了春茶期土壤MBC含量,提高幅度为50.34%;生物炭有机肥配施缓释肥处理显著提高了春茶期和夏茶期土壤MBN含量,提高幅度分别为61.16%和25.27%;菌渣配施缓释肥对春茶期BG、URE活性提升效果最佳,较对照提升幅度分别为45.56%、44.32%,而CBH活性受到抑制,不同施肥措施INV活性在茶叶不同生长期均受到抑制。通径分析表明,土壤有效磷、NO^3--N直接影响土壤MBC、MBN含量,同时土壤可溶性有机氮还直接影响土壤BG活性,土壤NO^3--N则直接影响土壤CBH、URE和INV活性。因此,重庆地区茶园追肥施用脲甲醛缓释肥时,基肥选用商品有机肥或菌渣有利于提升土壤MBC、MBN含量,并维持相关转化酶活性。     

宁南山区退耕对土壤微生物生物量和酶活性的影响

在野外调查和室内实验分析的基础上,研究了宁夏黄土丘陵区农田退耕后不同植被恢复措施对土壤的微生物生物量碳、氮、磷和转化酶、碱性磷酸酶、过氧化氢酶和脲酶活性的影响.研究表明:农田退耕后通过不同的植被恢复措施,土壤的微生物生物量碳为农地的1.04～3.12倍;微生物生物量氮为农地偏高;微生物生物量磷则相对稳定,无显著差异;转化酶和碱性磷酸酶活性的提高主要表现在表层(0-5 cm土层)和5-20 cm土层,分别比农地高出1%～41%和1%～89%;过氧化氢酶活性变化幅度最小;土壤脲酶活性在表层提高的幅度最大,为农地的1.95倍.农田退耕后,通过不同的植被恢复措施,土壤的生物肥力有所提高.     

南方红壤丘陵区土壤侵蚀-沉积作用对土壤酶活性的影响

土壤酶与土壤矿质营养元素循环、能量转移等密切相关。明确土壤酶对土壤侵蚀—沉积作用的响应机制,有助于进一步把握土壤侵蚀在全球碳循环中的作用。通过分析湘中红壤丘陵区松林坡面侵蚀区及沉积区土壤酶活性的变化特征,揭示了酶活性与土壤主要养分因子之间的关系,并在此基础上深入探讨了土壤侵蚀—沉积作用对土壤酶活性的影响。结果表明:沉积区绝大多数土层土壤有机碳(soil organic carbon,SOC)、全氮(total nitrogen,TN)、可溶性有机碳(dissolved organic carbon,DOC)、脲酶、酸性磷酸酶及过氧化氢酶活性均要显著高于侵蚀区。土壤沉积作用明显提高了土壤养分含量及酶活性。其次,侵蚀区与沉积区土壤养分含量及酶活性差异在侵蚀干扰较为严重的表层(0~30 cm)土壤表现较为明显,随着土壤深度的增加差异逐渐减小。侵蚀区与沉积区SOC、TN、DOC及酶活性均随土壤深度的增加呈现总体下降的趋势。相关性分析表明,土壤脲酶、酸性磷酸酶、过氧化氢酶之间及其与SOC、TN、DOC之间均存在极显著正相关关系(p0.01)。此外,偏冗余分析结果进一步表明SOC是解释土壤酶活性动态变化的主要因子,其解释量达7.5%,侵蚀诱导SOC在坡面的再分布是影响土壤酶活性的重要途径之一。     

宁南山区土壤酶活性特征及其与肥力因子的关系

分析了黄土丘陵区土壤酶活性与土壤肥力因子之间的关系。相关分析结果表明,土壤有机质与全N、速效磷、速效钾等密切相关,同时与土壤几种酶活性有较好的相关性。土壤酶活性依赖于有机质,当有机质含量增加时,酶积极参与其转化分解过程,活性提高。脲酶、蔗糖酶活性与土壤N、P、K含量关系最大,土壤速效钾与蔗糖酶活性关系最大。通径分析结果表明:土壤肥力因子对脲酶活性的直接作用顺序为有机质>速效钾>速效氮>阳离子交换量>全N>速效磷>物理性黏粒>土壤pH。有机质是影响土壤脲酶活性、碱性磷酸酶活性的主要因素,速效钾是影响蔗糖酶活性的最主要因素。     

Seasonal variations of soil microbial biomass and activity in warm- and cool-season turfgrass systems

Plant growth can be an important factor regulating seasonal variations of soil microbial biomass and activity. We investigated soil microbial biomass, microbial respiration, net N mineralization, and soil enzyme activity in turfgrass systems of three cool-season species (tall fescue, Festuca arundinacea Schreb., Kentucky bluegrass, Poa pratensis L., and creeping bentgrass, Agrostis palustris L.) and three warm-season species (centipedegrass, Eremochloa ophiuroides (Munro.) Hack, zoysiagrass, Zoysia japonica Steud, and bermudagrass, Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.). Microbial biomass and respiration were higher in warm- than the cool-season turfgrass systems, but net N mineralization was generally lower in warm-season turfgrass systems. Soil microbial biomass C and N varied seasonally, being lower in September and higher in May and December, independent of turfgrass physiological types. Seasonal variations in microbial respiration, net N mineralization, and cellulase activity were also similar between warm- and cool-season turfgrass systems. The lower microbial biomass and activity in September were associated with lower soil available N, possibly caused by turfgrass competition for this resource. Microbial biomass and activity (i.e., microbial respiration and net N mineralization determined in a laboratory incubation experiment) increased in soil samples collected during late fall and winter when turfgrasses grew slowly and their competition for soil N was weak. These results suggest that N availability rather than climate is the primary determinant of seasonal dynamics of soil microbial biomass and activity in turfgrass systems, located in the humid and warm region.     

Short-term effects of soil amendment with meadowfoam seed meal on soil microbial composition and function

Meadowfoam (Limnanthes alba Hartw. ex Benth) seed meal (MSM), a by-product of meadowfoam oil extraction, has a secondary metabolite known as glucosinolate glucolimnanthin. MSM applied as a soil amendment has been reported to have herbicidal and fertilizer properties. Experiments were conducted over 28 days to evaluate short-term effects of a MSM application on soil microbial communities. MSM was applied to soil as either a full or a split application. In addition to MSM and untreated control treatments, urea was used as a N source to account for the fertilizer effect of the seed meal. Urea was applied either as a full or a split rate on the same schedule as MSM. Soil microbial activities were not different between the full and the split rate applications of MSM. After day 7 following MSM application, carbon-source utilization of microbial communities of MSM was different from the urea and control treatments. Microbial communities in MSM treatments utilized complex carbon sources to a relatively greater degree than microbial communities in urea or control treatments. The C and N inputs from MSM increased the gross metabolic activity of the mixed microbial population. Basal respiration was stimulated and microbes reallocated carbon input to biomass and enzyme production. Within 7 and 14 days after MSM application, the reallocation occurred quickly and microbial biomass increased by at least 80% for C and 95% for N compared to the untreated control. In the short-term, MSM treatments affected nutrient dynamics, and the soil microbial structure and function. The effects of MSM application on the composition of bacterial and fungal communities warrant additional study.     

Interactions between microclimatic variables and the soil microbial biomass

Summary Soil moisture, temperature, microbial substrate-induced respiration and basal respiration were monitored in two plots in an agricultural field from April 30 to September 25, 1987, and in a further two plots from May 26 to August 27, 1988. An attempt to relate biological variables to microclimatic variables was made through the use of correlation analysis. The microbial substrate-induced and basal respiration were both strongly positively correlated with the soil moisture content, and to a lesser extent positively related to soil temperature, especially when partial correlation was used to control for variation in soil moisture. Short-term changes in substrate-induced and basal respiration were correlated with changes in soil moisture but were largely independent of soil temperature. The ratio of basal to substrate-induced respiration (indicating the respiration: biomass ratio and therefore ecosystem stability or persistence) was negatively associated with the soil moisture content and in some instances with soil temperature when partial correlation analysis (correcting for soil moisture variation) was used. This suggests that the climatic conditions which contributed to the lowest ecosystem stability were low temperature, low moisture conditions.     

长期石油污水灌溉对东北旱田土壤微生物生物量及土壤酶活性的影响

以土壤微生物生物量和土壤酶活性等为土壤微生物变化指标,研究了含油污水长期灌溉对东北沈抚灌区农田土壤微生物的影响.结果表明:土壤微生物生物量碳和生物量氮随着污灌有机物污染程度的增加而增加,与土壤石油烃(TPH)含量极显著正相关,相关系数分别为0.955和0.962(P<0.01);与土壤多环芳烃(PAHs)含量也极显著正相关,相关系数为0.941和0.946(P<0.01).土壤酶活性分析表明,土壤脱氢酶和多酚氧化酶与土壤TPH含量极显著正相关,相关系数分别为0.977和0.958(P<0.01);与PAHs含量也极显著正相关,相关系数分别为0.997和0.977(P<0.01).土壤中的脲酶受污水灌溉中含N物质的影响与TPH含量显著相关,相关系数为0.713(P<0.05),与PAHs污染无明显相关性.而纤维素酶与土壤有机物污染无明显相关关系.土壤微生物生物量和土壤脱氢酶、多酚氧化酶可以作为污灌土壤TPH和PAHs污染敏感的生物学和生物化学指标.     

分根装置中接种AM真菌对玉米秸秆降解及土壤微生物量碳、氮和酶活性的影响

本试验通过两室分根装置种植玉米,利用网袋法研究接种Glomus mosseae和Glomus etunicatum两种AM真菌对玉米秸秆降解的影响。试验分别在玉米移栽后第20 d、30 d、40 d、50 d和60 d时取样,通过测定接种AM真菌后玉米秸秆中碳、氮释放,土壤中3种常见酶活性、微生物量碳、微生物量氮及土壤呼吸的动态变化,探讨AM真菌降解玉米秸秆可能的作用机制。研究结果表明:经60 d的培养后,与未接种根室相比,接种G.mosseae和G.etunicatum真菌的菌根室玉米秸秆降解量提高了20.75%和20.97%;另外,接种G.mosseae和G.etunicatum加快了玉米秸秆碳素释放,降低了氮素释放,致使碳氮比降低25.45%和26.17%,有利于秸秆进一步降解。在本试验条件下,接种AF真菌的菌根室中土壤酸性磷素酶、蛋白酶和过氧化氢酶活性均有显著提高,并增加了微生物量碳、氮和土壤呼吸作用,形成了明显有别于根际的微生物区系。这一系列影响都反映出AM真菌能够直接或间接作用于玉米秸秆的降解过程,是导致玉米秸秆降解加快的重要原因。     

丘陵红壤不同人工林型土壤微生物类群、酶活性与土壤理化性状关系的研究

在中国科学院红壤生态试验站优化农业生态模式的长期定位试验地选取恢复14年的常绿针叶林地(马尾松)、落叶阔叶林地(小叶栎)、针阔混交林地(湿地松-小叶栎)和自然恢复地(受到人为干扰)为样地,并以附近疏草荒地作为对照,研究了不同人工林型对土壤微生物类群、酶活性以及土壤理化性质的影响.结果表明:与对照相比,不同林型下土壤细菌、真菌和放线菌总数均有很大程度的增加,依次为针阔混交林>阔叶林>针叶林>自然恢复地>疏草荒地.土壤蔗糖酶、脲酶和酸性磷酸酶活性表现为阔叶林>针阔混交林>针叶林>自然恢复地>疏草荒地.在剖面分布上,土壤微生物类群和酶活性也有明显的层次差异,即随土层的增加而减少.在0～10 cm土层中,土壤细菌、真菌与脲酶、酸性磷酸酶之间具有显著或极显著相关性.土壤微生物类群和酶活性与土壤有机质、全氮和有效氮之间具有极显著相关性.     

Barley yield and soil microbial and enzyme activities as affected by contamination of two soils with lead, zinc or copper

The effects of increasing rates of Pb, Zn and Cu on extractable heavy metal levels, barley yields, basal respiration and the activities of catalase, urease, invertase and acid phosphatase were investigated in two soils in a 2-year greenhouse experiment. In the first year, barley yields were decreased by increasing additions of Pb, Zn and Cu. In the second year, increased yields were recorded at lower rates of addition of all three metals in both the chestnut and chernozem soils. Yield depressions were most marked for added Cu and least marked for Pb but, in contrast, accumulation of heavy metals in grain, in excess of recommended limits, was most pronounced for Pb and did not occur for Cu. Increasing rates of all three metals caused a decrease in basal respiration; the degree of inhibition was generally greater in the second than in the first year. After 1 year of incubation, increasing rates of addition of metals reduced all tested enzyme activities. However, after 2 years, the pattern of response was more complex, with increases in enzyme activities being noted at lower rates of addition of all three metals. In general, invertase and urease activities were more markedly inhibited by heavy metal contamination than those of catalase and phosphatase. Ammonium acetate-extractable heavy metal concentrations in soils were less after 2 years than 1 years reaction time due to their transformation into less labile forms. Significant negative correlations between grain yield, basal respiration and enzyme activities were observed in both years.     

外源腐解微生物的物种组合对土壤微生物群落结构及代谢活性的影响

本文采用饲料类芽孢杆菌(Paenibacillus pabuli,P)、深红紫链霉菌(Streptomyces violaceorubidus,S)和黄绿木霉(Trichoderma aureoviride,T),组合构建了3种单菌剂(P、S和T)、3种两菌种复合菌剂(PT、PS和ST)及1种3菌种复合菌剂(PST),并将之添加到红壤中,监测各菌剂添加后土壤总磷脂脂肪酸(PLFAs)量、特征微生物PLFAs百分含量、土壤呼吸速率及总代谢熵的变化,旨在探明外源腐解微生物的物种组合对土壤微生物群落结构和代谢活性的影响,进而为优化有机物分解菌剂种群配置提供参考。结果显示,添加单菌剂的P、S和T处理及添加两菌种复合菌剂的PT和PS处理,土壤微生物生物量显著增加,增幅17.2%~121.6%(P0.05)。添加外源腐解微生物后,各处理的土壤微生物群落的细菌百分含量基本稳定在79.6%~83.1%,真菌百分含量显著增加8.8%~50.6%;而放线菌百分含量除P和ST处理外,其他处理显著降低9.4%~69.8%。PLFAs数据的主成分分析表明,各外源菌剂处理与CK处理间的群落结构变异由小到大依次为:接种单菌剂的P、S和T处理,接种两菌种复合菌剂的PT、PS和ST处理,接种3菌种复合菌剂的PST处理。添加单菌剂的P、T处理以及添加两菌种复合菌剂的ST处理,在短期内影响了土壤微生物的对数生长,使土壤呼吸速率的峰值分别提高48.7%、53.7%和78.7%;且外源腐解微生物组合的物种数量越多,土壤微生物进入潜伏期所需的时间越长。从外源腐解微生物对土壤肥力的长期影响来看,两菌种复合菌剂ST的添加使土壤微生物代谢活性提高28.9%,因此该处理的土壤碳矿化量增加11.1%;添加单菌剂的S处理使土壤微生物代谢活性显著降低32.4%,因此该处理的土壤碳矿化量仅降低7.3%;而添加两菌种复合菌剂的PS处理和3菌种复合菌剂的PST处理,在保持代谢活性不变的情况下,其土壤碳矿化量也降低5.8%~8.7%,其原因有待进一步研究。综上所述,外源腐解微生物的添加会改变土壤微生物的群落结构及其生长轨迹,且随外源腐解微生物组合的物种数量增多这一干扰程度越大,而土壤微生物代谢活性与外源腐解微生物组合的物种数量无显著相关性。     

Effects of long-term 2,4-D application on microbial populations and biochemical processes in cultivated soil

Summary The effects of 15 years of field applications of 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetate (2,4-D) on soil microbial population and biochemical processes were studied in a field cropped with maize followed by potatoes. Amine or ester formulations at the rate of 0.95 kg 2,4-D per hectare applied in May and October every year. Fungal, bacterial, and actinomycete populations, and microbial biomass C and N were reduced by the 2,4-D treatment, the reduction being more marked where the ester was used. N mineralization, nitrification, and potentially mineralizable N were reduced by the 2,4-D ester only, while urease activity was depressed by both formulations. Dehydrogenase activity and soil microbial respiration tended to be temporarily increased by the amine, but were reduced substantially by the ester, indicating that the ester probably interfered with nutrient cycling.