Experiences with tree fodders in temperate regions of Bhutan

Tree fodders are traditionally used in temperate and subtropical parts of Bhutan and provide approximately 20% of the fodder requirement of the country's livestock. Willow (Salix babylonica), Quercus semecarpifolia and Euonimus spp. were considered the most important species for temperate areas. Crude protein content of willow leaves decreased from 24.8.% in April to 11.3% in October. Bulls' voluntary intake was 77.7, 58.4, and 28.6 g DM/W^0.75 for willow, Popular robusta and Quercus semecarpifolia, respectively. Compared to temperate grasslands under the absence of phosphate inputs, tree fodders have a higher production potential and produce better quality fodder. Tree fodders may complement, but will not replace herbaceous fodder species in temperate areas. Assessment of yield potential in comparison to and in association with herbaceous temperate species is considered the most important research area.     

Evaluation of nutrient value of seabuckthorn in north China

Five minerals or elements, crude protein, lysine, methionine cystine, calcium and phosphorus, were selected for evaluation of the food value of seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides ssp. sinensis) using the method of "food analysis". The decision values (δi) of seabuckthorn seeds, leaves and fruit residues rank in the fifth, sixth and ninth position among the 16 types of fodder. Seeds, leaves and fruit residues of seabuckthorn are suitable for livestock and poultry fodder. The weights of livestock and poultry are considerably increased after feeding with seabuckthorn. The development of seabuckthorn should have great potentials as food, pre-food and food additives for livestock and poultry in north China. Processing facilities should pay more attention to seabuckthorn food development methods and strategies and the seabuckthorn fodder industry should be promoted.     

Incorporating indigenous knowledge of fodder trees into small-scale silvopastoral systems in Jamaica

A study was conducted to identify and explore indigenous knowledge relating to fodder trees and silvopastoral management systems of small-scale farmers in seasonally dry areas of Jamaica. The objectives of the study were to: 1) explore farmers indigenous knowledge relating to fodder trees and silvopastoral management systems in a subtropical dry climate; 2) examine pastoral land-use systems and technologies in current use; and 3) seek to integrate this information into silvopastoral tree fodder systems. Data were gathered via observation and semistructured interviewing. A snowball sampling strategy was used to purposively select all small-scale farmers who had cattle in the Green Park valley for interview.Of forty farmers interviewed, 37 males (92.5%) and 3 females (7.5%) were primary caretakers of cattle. Twenty-seven of 40 farmers (68%) raised cattle to generate income. During extended droughts farmers are forced to look for alternatives to desiccated, overgrazed pasture grasses, including: 1) local travel to harvest sugar cane tops and to cut Guinea grass (Panicum maximum); 2) purchase of bag feed; and 3) harvest and use of tree fodder. Preferred fodder trees were identified as Bacedar (Guazama ulmifolia), Guango (Albizia saman), Breadnut (Brosimum alicastrum) and Quickstick (Gliricidia sepium).Recommended silvopastoral management systems include fodder hedgerows, three strata forage systems, and living fences. In addition, production of indigenous fodder tree species, introducing improved tree fodder species, and planting improved pasture grasses concurrent with cash trees is suggested.     

Fruit production ofAcacia tortilis andA. nilotica in semi-arid Ethiopia

Dry, dehiscent fruits ofAcacia tortilis provide important fodder for pastoral livestock in dry seasons on the central Borana Plateau, fruits ofA. nilotica may also be useful during drought. Information was needed on fruit yield to assess what these species could contribute to improved calf feeding systems based on local resources. Fruit production of 10 mature trees per species was measured at five sites for seven months during 1988–9 (n=50 per species). Fruit yields varied according to site, season and species x site (each atP<0.001), but there was no main effect of species (P=0.13). Yields were not correlated with trunk diameter at breast height (DBH) or canopy area within or across species (P>0.05 in all cases). Yields ranged from 0 to 40 kg DM per tree overall, with an average of 5.3 kg DM per tree (or 65 g DM/m² of canopy area). This average tree had a DBH of 26 cm and a canopy area of 81 m². Low and highly variable fruit yields appear to constrain enhanced use of these species here. These species warrant further attention in research and development, however, given their strategic value as forage resources in pastoral systems and their ability to persist in variable environments.     

Comparative performance of four multi-purpose trees associated with four grass species in the humid regions of Southern India

The results of a field trial conducted at the Livestock Research Station, Thiruvazhamkunnu, Kerala to study the compatibility of different components in a silvo-pastoral system revealed that growth and yield of fodder species were significantly influenced by the tree components only after tree canopy formation. The fodder species such as Pennisetum purpureum Schum., Panicum maximum Jacq., Brachiaria ruziziensis Griseb. and Euchlaena mexicana Schrad. grown in association with Casuarina equisetifolia J. R. & G. Forst. and Ailanthus malabarica DC recorded comparatively higher forage yield even after canopy formation. However, forage crops grown in combination with Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth. and Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. registered relatively lower values for growth and yield. Increased light infiltration into the understorey due to the cladophyllous canopy can be attributed as reason for the higher fodder productivity under Casuarina. Due to the combination of crown size and shape, tree height and spacing the amount of light intercepted by Ailanthus also was very low. Among the four multi-purpose trees used, Acacia recorded the maximum growth rate followed by Casuarina, Ailanthus and Leucaena. Forage productivity of the four species was in the order: Pennisetum purpureum > Panicum maximum > Brachiaria ruziziensis > Euchlaena mexicana. Casuarina with Pennisetum/ Panicm were found to be optimal tree — forage combinations for silvo-pastoral systems.     

Soil amelioration and root symbioses ofParkia biglobosa (Jacq.) Benth. in West Africa

Parkia biglobosa is an important multipurpose tree from the savanna zone of West Africa. It has been reported to increase soil fertility and crop yields beneath its crown. However, no work has been conducted to determine the role of root symbioses in soil amelioration by this species. The existing reports of nodulation inParkia biglobosa are contradictory and the presence of mycorrhizae is not documented in the literature.Fieldwork was conducted at six sites in Burkina Faso and Nigeria, to investigate the amelioratory effect ofParkia biglobosa on soil fertility and to ascertain the occurence of root symbioses. Soil samples were collected from points close to the trunk, the mid-crown, crown edge and the open areas away from individual trees. The samples were analysed chemically to assess pH, organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium content. Root samples were also collected from the field and examined for nodules and for evidence of mycorrhizal infection.The results of the soil analysis showed a significant amelioration for total nitrogen and available potassium with proximity to the tree, but organic matter, available phosphorus and soil pH showed no significant trend. This pattern was similar for all sites. The results also indicated that amelioration of nitrogen and potassium with proximity to the tree increased with tree size.Root nodules were absent from the roots of trees examined in the field, both in Burkina Faso and Nigeria. A pot experiment was set up using the soil collected from beneath the trees and a laboratory grown cowpea miscellany culture as rhizobial inoculum forParkia biglobosa seedlings. The roots of these seedlings also showed no evidence of nodulation. Ectomycorrhizae were not present in roots collected from the field, but endomycorrhizal infection was prolific.A study of root distribution in Burkina Faso suggested that one mechanism for increased soil fertility beneathParkia biglobosa is the widespread lateral root system, which redistributes nutrients from an extensive radius to a concentrated area beneath the crown. The root system is aided in the efficient uptake of nutrients by endomycorrhizae. Other possible mechanisms include interception of dust by the crown and deposition by throughfall and stemflow, defacation by animals beneath the tree and decomposition of leaf litter.     

Vertebrate and insect pests and hemi-parasitic plants of Parkia biglobosa and Vitellaria paradoxa in Nigeria

This study investigated the occurrence and diversity of hemi-parasitic plants, vertebrate and insect pest species of Parkia biglobosa (Keay), and Vitellaria paradoxa (Gaertn.) as well as the strategies for their control in the parklands of the Nigerian humid savanna. Results indicated that of the two major hemi-parasitic plants encountered, Tapinanthus globiferus was the more widespread with wider host range than T. dodonifolius. Mechanical control by cutback of infested branches was ineffective for both species. The major vertebrate pests consist of 6 avian species from 3 families: Nectaridae, Plocidae and Cuculidae; a fruit bat, Epomops frangueti and an unidentified squirrel. The species fed on both the fruits of the trees and the seeds of the hemi-parasitic plants. Twenty insect species from 14 families were encountered on P. biglobosa compared to 33 species from 17 families on V. paradoxa in all the ecological zones covered in the study. Species diversity was comparatively higher in the fallow than in the cultivated land. The majority of the insects encountered was of little significance and may not warrant application of control. Cirina forda (Saturnidae:lepidoptera) was a major pest causing 60%–90% defoliation of mature trees of V. paradoxa. All larval stages were destructive but control at this stage is not advised because it provides incidental source of food to locals. Control after pupation using a slow-release insecticide with a soil penetration depth of 15–20 cm is suggested.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Agroforestry and soil conservation needs of smallholders in Southern Zambia

An agroforestry and soil conservation needs assessment survey conducted in southern Zambia revealed valuable insight into needs, constraints and development options as perceived by smallholders themselves. Inadequate efforts to conserve soil are due to technical and socio-economic factors, they do not result from a lack of awareness of the widespread erosion threat. Fruit tree planting, windbreak establishment as well as the protection of the natural Faidherbia albida regeneration in cropland are popular agroforestry interventions whose positive effects are widely acknowledged. Forty-two perennial species were found to directly contribute to people's diet. Although local fuelwood and fodder shortages as well as the need for fencing are recognized only few respondents envisage agroforestry solutions such as fuelwood and fodder tree planting or live fencing. Most smallholders are interested in tree planting but have so far only planted few trees. Those planted are usually exotic fruit trees. Drought hardly, termite and browse resistant perennials adapted to smallholder tree planting must be provided by the extension services. The widespread exclusion of women from decision making and the lack of tenure security hampers female participation in agroforestry development and consequently threatens sustainable development altogether.     

Farmers’ perceptions of tree mortality, pests and pest management practices in agroforestry in Malawi, Mozambique and Zambia

Pest management research within the context of agroforestry is in its infancy, and it is often difficult to say when a particular pest justifies investment in research to establish facts. Understanding the potentials and drawbacks of farmers’ indigenous ecological knowledge (ethnoecology) may form the basis for constructive collaboration between farmers, agroforestry scientists and extension staff. Therefore, the objectives of the study were to (1) assess farmers’ knowledge and perceptions of pests, (2) prioritize pest problems that limit tree planting and maize production based on farmers’ own criteria and (3) to identify farmers’ indigenous pest management practices for priority pests. Data were collected using community meetings, individual interviews and direct observation by the first author. The farmers involved in this study in eastern Zambia had over ten years of experience, while most of the farmers in Mozambique and parts of southern Malawi were new to agroforestry. Farmers perceived insects as the major causes of tree mortality, followed by drought, bush fires and browsing by livestock. Among the biological constraints to maize production, insects (particularly termites and stalk bores) and weeds (particularly Striga asiatica) were more important in farmers’ minds than crop diseases. Fundamentally, the farmers’ perception of the causes of tree mortality and crop pests agreed with researchers’ perceptions and the literature. Both termite and witch weed problems were associated with low soil quality, and farmers use various indigenous control practices to control these pests. Some farmers did not know the causes of tree mortality, and hence do not take action. Farmer’s perception of tree mortality was found to be a function of operator-specific variables such as sex, level of education and years of experience with tree species.     

Karité (Vitellaria paradoxa) and néré (Parkia biglobosa) associated with crops in South Mali

The effect of two tree species, karité (Vitellaria paradoxa) and néré (Parkia biglobosa) on soil condition, development and production of cotton, sorghum and pearl millet, main crops in South Mali, has been investigated.The soil under the trees is slightly richer (organic matter content and several cations) compared to adjacent tree-less sites. Also tree-specific effects exist.Soil enrichment, however, is mainly a matter of redistribution of locally available nutrient resources.Of the six associations studied, only karité-cotton shows no tree-induced reduction in crop production. All other associations suffer greatly from reduced crop outputs caused by the trees, usually in the order of 60%.There are at least two reasons that explain tree-induced yield reduction. Because of increased humidity in the immediate surroundings of trees, in both soil and air, lower numbers of crop plants survive up to maturity, presumably because plants are attacked by fungi. Secondly, crop plants that mature show reduced output because of inter-specific competition for light and nutrients.In case of néré, in order to minimize the trees' negative influence lopping is advised. Such practice, however, is less suitable in case of karité, because of its assumed lower potential to regenerate, as compared to néré.     

The scope and potential of tree legumes in agroforestry

Tree legumes play a vital role in many agroforestry systems currently in use throughout the world. Because of their multipurpose nature they can be used to provide high quality fodder for livestock, nutrient rich mulch for crops, fuelwood and timber, microenvironment amelioration, ecosystem stability, and human food.Tree legumes are increasingly being used to provide fodder for livestock, as they have a number of unique characteristics which make them attractive for both smallholder and largescale livestock enterprises. Research and development efforts have concentrated on broadening the resource base by evaluating a greater range of tree legume genera, defining optimum management strategies, and developing appropriate systems which capitalize on the advantages of these species.This paper reviews the role of tree legumes in agroforestry, especially for fodder purposes, outlines the areas of current research focus, and endeavors to highlight some gaps in our knowledge which require further research effort.     

Income and labour productivity of collection and use of indigenous fruit tree products in Zimbabwe

Rural people in Africa periodically rely on wild fruits to supplement their diet and to generate cash income. However, scientific evidence on the economics of using indigenous fruit tree (IFT) products is scarce. The objective of the study was to fill in some of the gaps for which farm-household surveys were conducted in Zimbabwe during 1999–2000. Gross margins and returns to labour in collection, use and sale of products of Uapaca kirkiana (Muell. Arg., Wild Loquat), Strychnos sp. (S. cocculoides (Baker) and S. spinosa (Lam.), Monkey Orange) and Parinari curatellifolia (Planch. ex. Benth., Fever Tree) were compared with other farming activities. A random sample of over three hundred households in the Murehwa Communal and the Takawira Resettlement Areas was interviewed to gather income and expenditure data. Additionally, income, expenditure and labour allocation of 39 households were closely monitored for one year. Results indicated that the majority of rural households benefited from consumption and sale of indigenous (IF), although the extent varied among households. Within the households, children were the main consumers of fruits. Marketing of IF are carried out by women who used the receipts to purchase household goods. While U. kirkiana fruits were more important in generating cash income than others, fruits of P. curatellifoliawere important for home consumption during periods of food shortages. The gross margins for collection of IFT products were lower than for livestock and crop production. However, returns to labour from collection and use of IFT products were considerably greater than from other activities including gardening and livestock rearing. The study indicates that collection of IFT products is an efficient labour allocation strategy in Zimbabwe. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Millet production under pruned tree crowns in a parkland system in Burkina Faso

As a tree management tool, three treatments of crown pruning (total-pruning, half-pruning and no-pruning) were applied to Vitellaria paradoxa (karité) and Parkia biglobosa (néré) in agroforestry parkland systems in Burkina Faso. The area under each tree was divided into four concentric tree influence zones (Zones A: up to 2 m from the tree trunk, B: up to half of the radius of the tree crown, C: up to the edge of the tree crown and D: up to 2 m away from the edge of the tree crown). Millet production under these zones and outside was assessed during two cropping seasons over the study period of three years and the results showed that tree crown pruning had significant effect on millet production and the highest millet grain yield and total dry matter were produced under total-pruned trees (507 ± 49 and 2033 ± 236 kg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹, respectively). Light transmission, transpiration and soil nutrient status under the trees were also analysed in relation to millet production. The results of the analysis showed that total-pruned trees gave the highest millet production due to the reduction by crown pruning of the effects of large tree crowns on PAR transmission below crowns and rates of transpiration by trees. Soil was more fertile closer to the tree trunks than outside tree crowns. This may also be one of the reasons why millet overall performed better under Zone B than outside tree crowns. The higher production of millet under Zone B than under Zone A, the zone closer to the tree trunk, may be due to lower light intensity and more intense competition for water between trees and crops under Zone A. It was concluded that at least in the short term millet production could be improved by crown pruning of both karité and néré, but long term effects may depend on the ability of the trees to maintain the amelioration of soil fertility and on how quickly the trees recover from pruning. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Forest utilization patterns and socio-economic status of the Van Gujjar tribe in sub-Himalayan tracts of Uttarakhand, India

The present study was conducted on the Van Gujjar tribe inhabiting a sub-Himalayan tract in the North Western Himalayas of Uttarakhand State,India.The Van Gujjars have been practicing transmigration over hundreds of years.They migrate each year with their households and livestock between summer and winter pastures.A few years ago with the announcement of the establishment of the Rajaji National Park,the tribe has been forced out of the forest area and rehabilitated outside the park,which has affected their lifestyle.The newly established rehabilitation colony in the Gandikhata area of Haridwar District of Uttarakhand State was taken as a case study.The aims of the present study were to understand and evaluate the socio-economic status of the Van Gujjars in their newly established rehabilitation colony,the utilization pattern of forest resources by the tribe and their relative preference for selective trees for various uses.A total of 176 households were interviewed (giving equal weight to all economic classes and family every size) by using pre-structured questionnaires.The education level was very low (12.9%) and the average income per household was recorded as Rs.36000 (approximately $ 803) per year.The major source of income was dairy production (80.6%) followed by labor employment (13.9%),NTFPs (4.2%) and agricultural production (1.4%).More than 90% of fuel wood and fodder is extracted from the forest.The average fuel wood and fodder consumptions per household per day were recorded as 25.86 and 21.58 kg,respectively.A total of 35 species of cultivated plants and 89 species of wild plants were found to be utilized as food sources.Selectively 25 wild tree species are well known as being used by the Van Gujjars as fodder,fuel wood,agricultural implements,household articles,dye,medicine,fiber and other products.According to their utility value,the most preferred and useful tree species is Ougeinia oojeinensis,followed by Terminalia alata,Bombax ceiba,Shorea robusta and Dalbergia sissoo.     

Growth and water relations of walnut trees (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Juglans regia</Emphasis> L.) on a mesic site in central Italy: effects of understorey herbs and polyethylene mulching

The establishment of trees and associated herbaceous understorey vegetation during the afforestation of former arable lands can decrease soil erosion, increase soil fertility and diversify plantation income. This study reports on the five-year results from experimental plots of common walnut (Juglans regia L.) established in association with two different herbaceous understoreys in 1994 in central Italy. Treatments included: (i) walnut established with plastic film mulching in association with subclover (Trifolium subterraneum L.); (ii) walnut with subclover; (iii) walnut with a spontaneous herbaceous cover (grassing treatment); (iv) clean-cultivated walnut (control). Stem growth rates and the periodical changes in predawn and midday leaf water potentials of walnut, as well as the annual sward dry matter production, were measured. Over the five-years, the understorey vegetation was competitive towards trees, negatively affecting their leaf water status relative to the control, especially during mid-summer observations, with the onset of summer drought. Tree growth in the grassing treatment was slightly but significantly (p < 0.05) reduced in height in comparison to unmulched trees with subclover. Subclover competitiveness towards walnut was completely masked by the plastic mulching, so that mulched walnut with subclover had the highest cumulative stem diameter and height (+20% than control treatment). This was associated with water potentials that were never higher than the control. The subclover-mulched treatment, due to its three main advantages (highest cumulative stem growth, an annual dry matter fodder production of 6.3 t/ha, and soil erosion protection), appears to be a promising cultural model for walnut cultivation in areas without marked drought.     

Napier grass strips and livestock: a bioeconomic analysis

Napier grass strips are gaining some acceptance in Southeast Asia as a vegetative means of soil erosion control, due to the relative ease of establishment and management. In addition, the napier grass strips aid productivity of agroforestry systems by providing mulch or by being fed to livestock. In this paper, a bioeconomic comparison of different ways of utilising the napier grass cuttings is undertaken. The three uses examined for the cuttings were: as mulch in the alley areas, sold as fodder, and fed to animals with manure applied back to the system. The analysis linked the soils-oriented SCUAF model with economic and animal component models. SCUAF was parameterized using field data based on farmer interviews and field visits. Farmer interviews and field visits were conducted at Claveria, Misamis Oriental to gather additional data regarding costs and returns associated with animal production, and also to obtain the farm gate price of napier. Predicted biophysical results produced by the SCUAF model showed that application of napier grass cuttings, back into the system, directly as mulch or indirectly as animal manure resulted in higher maize and napier yields, lower soil erosion rates, and less of a reduction in soil mineral nitrogen and soil labile carbon levels. The comparison was made with the case where napier was sold off-farm as fodder. Cost-benefit analysis showed that higher economic returns were gained when napier grass cuttings were fed to animals, rather than applied directly as mulch. This economic benefit was attributed to the draught and transport services rendered by the animal and to a change in the value of the animals. This analysis highlights the value of utilizing animals within a napier grass strip system for control of erosion.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Soil fertility management for reclamation of Imperata grasslands by smallholder agroforestry

Imperata cylindrica grasslands are widely believed to indicate poor soil fertility. Soil fertility improvement may have to be an important component of a reclamation strategy. Data for Sumatra, Indonesia indicate, however, that Imperata occurs on a broad range of soil types and is not confined to the poorest soils. A direct role of Imperata in soil degradation cannot be ascertained. In many instances, however, Imperata soils are low in available P and effective N supply. The use of rock phosphate in combination with erosion control (fertility traps) and legume cover crops can be effective in restoring soil fertility. Case studies for a number of sites in Sumatra have confirmed the practical possibility of reclaiming grasslands for food and tree crops.     

Studies withGliricidia sepium for crop/livestock production systems in West Africa

This paper reports for progress of research onGliricidia sepium conducted by the Humid Zone Programme (HZP) of the International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) at Ibadan in Southwest Nigeria in the period 1982–1986. It examines the biological characteristics of the species, with respect to growth, flowering and seed production, and analyses its potential for improving crop production (through soil fertility maintenance) and livestock production (through production of improved fodder). Integration ofGliricidia into cropping systems is necessary for optimum realisation of its crop improvement quality. The alley farming system is presented in the paper as one means of achieving sustainability in crop production through integration of trees, such asGliricidia, into cropping systems. The use ofGliricidia in Intensive Feed Gardens, for production of leguminous fodder is also described as an alternative production system. The paper finally reports on experiences with local farmers in on-farm research and development for the integration ofGliricidia andLeucaena into local farming systems. It ends with a suggestion for more research, targetted specifically at improvement of the species and its utilisation.     

Evaluation and selection of multipurpose tree for improving soil hydro-physical behaviour under hilly eco-system of north east India

Soil hydro-physical behaviour was studied under a 20-year old agroforestry plantation consisting of five multipurpose tree species (Pinus kesiya Royle ex-Gordon, Alnus nepalensis D.Don, Parkia roxburghii G.Don, Michelia oblonga Wall. and Gmelina arboria Roxb.) maintained under normal recommended practices at Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) Complex, Umiam, Meghalaya, India. The aim was to select tree species, which could act as better bio-ameliorant as well as provides higher economic return in highly degraded soil of northeastern hill region of India. A site without vegetation (no tree) nearby the plantation was also selected as control for comparison. Soil samples for various hydro-physical analysis, were taken from 0–15 and 15–30 cm soil depth at a distance of 1 m from respective tree species during wet and dry season of 2003–2004. No appreciable differences in relative contents of textural separates of sand, silt and clay were observed among various tree covers. Surface cover with constant leaf litter fall and extensive root system increased soil organic carbon, helped in better soil aggregation, improved water transmissivity and infiltrability and in turn, reduced soil erosion in the present study. However, due to variation in quantity of leaf litter fall and root biomass, these parameters differed among tree species. Of the tree species, P. kesiya, M. oblonga and A. nepalensis were found to be rated best for bio-amelioration of soils as these tree covers had more root and shoot biomass and more litter fall compared to other species. However, considering both timber production and improvement in hydro-physical behaviour, M. oblonga was found best among the tested tree species. The study, thus, suggested that inclusion of tree species M. oblonga in agroforestry system is a viable option for natural resource management and could sustain long-term soil productivity in a highly degraded soil of this region as well as for food security of the resource poor people of North East India.     

Studies withGliricidia sepium for crop/livestock production systems in West Africa

This paper reports for progress of research onGliricidia sepium conducted by the Humid Zone Programme (HZP) of the International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) at Ibadan in Southwest Nigeria in the period 1982–1986. It examines the biological characteristics of the species, with respect to growth, flowering and seed production, and analyses its potential for improving crop production (through soil fertility maintenance) and livestock production (through production of improved fodder). Integration ofGliricidia into cropping systems is necessary for optimum realisation of its crop improvement quality. The alley farming system is presented in the paper as one means of achieving sustainability in crop production through integration of trees, such asGliricidia, into cropping systems. The use ofGliricidia in Intensive Feed Gardens, for production of leguminous fodder is also described as an alternative production system. The paper finally reports on experiences with local farmers in on-farm research and development for the integration ofGliricidia andLeucaena into local farming systems. It ends with a suggestion for more research, targetted specifically at improvement of the species and its utilisation.