European Population Exposure to Airborne Pollutants Based on a Multivariate Spatio-Temporal Model

In this paper, we estimate the distribution of population by exposure to multiple airborne pollutants, taking into account the spatio-temporal variability of daily air quality and the high-resolution spatial spread of human population around Europe. In particular, we consider monitoring network data for five pollutants, namely carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, coarse and fine particulate matters. The spatial information contained in the large dataset of daily continental air quality is exploited using a multivariate spatio-temporal model capable to cover cross correlation among pollutants, covariates, and missing data as well as spatial and temporal variability and correlation. At the same time, the model is simple enough to be feasible for the large dataset of daily continental air quality over three years. Maximum likelihood estimation is performed using the EM algorithm, and kriging-like spatial estimates are used to compute high-resolution exposure distribution. Moreover, a novel semi-parametric bootstrap technique is used to assess the exposure distribution uncertainty. In this way, we compare the daily population exposure of 33 European countries and three important metropolitan areas in years 2009–2011 using a single flexible model. Extensive tabulations and graphs are reported in the supplementary material.     

Pathological and Hormonal Changes in Freshwater Fishes Due to Exposure to Heavy Metals Pollutants

The concentrations of major heavy metals in organs of two cyprinid fish and in water collected from three sections of the Kor River, Iran, were determined using the induction coupled plasma method. The concentrations of heavy metals in tissue of fish from the middle sampling zone were significantly higher (p?<?0.05) than those from the other two sampling zones, whereas no significant differences (p?>?0.05) were detected between the two sexes and species. Estradiol in females and progesterone and testosterone in males from the middle study site were significantly (p?<?0.05) lower than values from the other two sites. Pathological changes in blood cells, liver, and kidneys of fishes were significantly higher in highly polluted areas (middle sampling zone). So heavy metals exposure can effectively decreases estrogenic and androgenic secretion in fish. These results show that industrial activities have polluted the river and that heavy metals exposure can induce pathological changes in fish organs.     

Statistical Modeling of Ambient Air Pollutants in Delhi

State space model coupled with Kalman filter is used toforecast metal concentrations observed at Delhi. Three metalsviz. Lead, Iron, Zinc along with Respirable SuspendedParticulate Matter (RSPM) Concentration observed during 1993to 1995 are selected for the study. The data for year 1996is selected to test the forecasting ability of the model.Wind speed is used as an external input. Autoregressive modelwith external input is also used to compare the results. Itis found that the State space model is giving betterpredictions for lead, iron and RSPM concentration than theARX model while for zinc concentration, both the models aregiving good performance results.     

Impacts of Air Pollutants on Vegetation in Developing Countries

The predicted increases in emissions of primary pollutants in many rapidly industrializing countries may have severe consequences for the health and productivity of forest trees and agricultural crops. This paper presents a review of air pollution impacts on vegetation in developing countries by summarising information describing the direct impacts to vegetation caused by a number of air pollutants (sulphur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ozone (O₃) and Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)). This information has been collected by experts from a number of rapidly industrializing countries in Asia, Latin America and Africa and includes observations of visible injury in the field and the use of transect studies and controlled experimental investigations to ascribe damage to different pollutant concentrations. The ability to synthesise this information to define exposure-response relationships and subsequent air quality guidelines similar to those established in North America and Europe is assessed. In addition, the use of regional and global models describing pollution concentrations is discussed with reference to assessing the extent of adverse impacts and identifying regions likely to be most at risk from air pollution, both for the present day and in the future. The evidence summarised in the paper clearly shows that current pollutant concentrations experienced in many developing countries, particularly Asia, can result in severe damage to vegetation and that without appropriate control measures such damage is likely to worsen in the future as pollutant emissions increase.     

Correlation between Environmental Conditions and the Distribution of Mosses Exposed to Urban Air Pollutants

Moss surveys have several advantages over conventional depositionmonitoring based on precipitation, and allow the study of regional differences and temporal trends of airborne pollution. The purposes of this study were to: (i) describe the moss species growing in one of the largest industrial cities in Asia, (ii) document edaphic and atmospheric conditions at each site, (iii) collect materials and data for a program of regular moss monitoring, previously lacking in the Far East, (iv) uncover correlations among atmospheric and edaphic factors expected to influence moss growth. As a result, a total of fifteen moss species were recorded in twenty-five sites in Seoul, Korea, and most sites had four or five species. Each species' density was affected by soil parameters, but density of Pogonatum nessii and Taxiphyllum taxirameum was also affected by CO. In contrast, SO₂ was the only environmental variablethat significantly affected the composition of moss communities. On the whole, species diversity rather than abundance of specific moss species might be a good indicator of atmospheric contamination in Seoul. This investigation will help fill the gap in knowledge of the interactions between environmental pollution and moss vegetation under field conditions.     

A Cost-Effective Methodology for Spatial Concentration Distributions of Urban Air Pollutants

A methodology to determine economically the spatial concentration distribution of the air pollutants of carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen monoxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), oxides of nitrogen (NO_x) and traffic rates (TR) is described. It involves the immediate transfer of samples from field to analysers for measurement and a subsequent statistical treatment. The proposed methodology has been applied in Patras using 5 and 50-l Teflon air sample bags, sampling at least 12 to 36-l actual volumes within a 20-min time interval. Totally, 221 pairs of 5-l and 112 single 50-l samples were randomly picked in morning rush hours of working days from 64 locations of a 40.0-km² area during a winter period, when peaks of primary air pollutants usually occur due to high traffic rates and systematic inversions. Measurements were used to statistically calculate spatial average levels approximating 1-h mean concentrations with acceptable mean probable errors less than 25 % for indicative random sampling. The 1-h levels were strongly correlated to the corresponding traffic rates. Iso-concentration diagrams indicated possible zones susceptible to high pollution levels and helped to check the location appropriateness of the existing monitoring stations for (a) fixed urban-background measurements at the Vas. Georgiou A’ Sq., which was ideal, and (b) fixed traffic-oriented measurements, which should be relocated to the Ipsilon Alonion Sq. In addition, data helped to determine other points where indicative measurements should be performed. Data could be very useful for the Patras air quality assessment in conjunction with model predictions and/or objective estimation methods.     

Acidic Precipitation and Large-Scale Transport of Air Pollutants Observed in Korea

Acid rain at a rural site in Chongwon (KHN), central Korea has been under observation since 1990. To substantiate the 10-year observations, rain samples from six other sites were also collected and analyzed. Results show that acid rain occurred frequently at all sites. At KHN, seasonal and annual variability of pH values had a 10-year VWM value of 4.67 and an arithmetic mean value of 5.09. In general, a high value of pH occurred during springtime when the occurrence of yellow sand (dust) was prevalent in East Asia; during summer, heavy rain usually contained neutral pH values. During other seasons, the degree of acidic precipitation usually coincided with certain air flows. Most frequently, air flows and cyclones coming from south and central China often resulted in precipitation with low pH values observed in Korea. Using daily satellite observations from 1996, we have also been monitoring the long-range and large-scale transport of air pollutants (LSTAP) over East Asia. Many samples of LSTAP were obtained when they were crossing the Yellow Sea and moving over the Korean Peninsula and to SW Japan. The width of the Yellow Sea is ca. 350～700 km and air pollutants take 1～2 days to cross it. Cases of acid rain in Korea clearly correlate wth the LSTAP from source regions in China.     

The Science of Managing Forests to Sustain Water Resources

Water, Air, &; Soil Pollution -     

A New Imitative Model to Predict the Impact of Air Pollutants on Scots Pine Health and Radial Increment

In order to address the problem of pollutant effects on trees against the background of environmental fluctuations a simulation model using radial increment as an indicator of tree productivity is proposed. Ring times series of large trees provide one of the most acceptable biological indicators for the assessment of pollutant impact. This research focused on the tallest severely damaged and healthy trees growing close to each other in the surroundings of Jonava Mineral Fertilizer plant, which primarily emits nitrogen (N) and sulphur (S) compounds. The annual increment was found to be strongly correlated with mean September air temperature of the previous year and S load. The correlation coefficient (k=0.961) between modelled and observed tree ring times series of severely damaged trees proves the impact of S load on growth and vitality of a tree and enables fulfillment of tree condition prognosis.     

The Contribution of Foliar Exposure to Boron Toxicity

Boron toxicity is commonly considered in terms of plant B uptake and accumulation. This work tested the hypothesis that foliar exposure of water with high B content leads to more severe toxicity reactions in plants as compared to exposure to high B simply through the soil solution. Growth and B uptake were studied in corn, tomatoes, onions, celery and radish where B laden water was applied with and without a component of foliar contact. Increased visual symptoms of B toxicity and decreased yields were found in plants with foliar applied B for all of the crops, while associated increased B tissue concentrations were not measured. The results imply that the relative toxicity of B entering through the leaves is greater than that of B entering via roots. Biomass reduction due to B was found to be a function of neither absolute B accumulation nor relative B mobility in the plant.     

Characteristics of Nitrogenous Air Pollutants at Urban and Suburban Forested Sites, Western Japan

Nitrogenous air pollutants including nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), nitric acid (HNO₃), nitrate (NO ₃ ^? ), ammonia (NH₃), ammonium (NH ₄ ⁺ ), and nitrous acid (HONO) were characterized at an urban forested (UF) site in Hiroshima and at a suburban forested (SF) site in Fukuoka, western Japan, using an annular denuder system for 1?year from May 2006 to May 2007 to compare the concentrations and chemical species of atmospheric nitrogenous pollutants between UF and SF sites. The proximity of the urban area was reflected in higher NO₂ concentrations at the UF site than at the SF site. NO₂ was more oxidized at the SF site because it is farther from an urban area than the UF site, which was reflected in higher concentrations of HNO₃ at the SF site than the UF site. HNO₃ and acidic sulfate is neutralized by NH₃, existing as ammonium nitrate (NH₄NO₃) and ammonium sulfate [(NH₄)₂SO₄] at the UF site. At the SF site, acidic sulfate is neutralized by NH₃, existing as (NH₄)₂SO₄, but NH₄NO₃, had scarcely formed at the SF site. A much higher HONO concentration was observed at the UF site than at the SF site, especially in winter and spring at night, which could be explained by higher NO₂ concentrations at the UF site because of its proximity to an urban area and stagnant meteorological conditions. Atmospheric HONO determination was critical in evaluating the possibility of damage to trees in UF areas.     

Development of a Sequential Decision-Making Model for Controlling Multiple Air Pollutants Under Stochastic Uncertainty

Most of previous programming methods for air-quality management merely considered single pollutant from point sources. However, air pollution control is characterized by multiple pollutants from various sources. Meanwhile, uncertain information in the decision-making process cannot be neglected in the real-world cases. Thus, an inexact multistage stochastic programming model with joint chance constraints based on the air quality index (air-quality management model with joint chance constraints (AQM-JCC)) is developed for controlling multiple pollutants deriving from point and mobile sources and applied to a regional air-quality management system. In the model, integrated air quality associated with the joint probability existing in terms of environmental constraints is evaluated; uncertainties expressed as probability distributions and interval values are addressed; risks of violating the overall air-quality target under joint chance constraints are examined; and dynamics of system uncertainties and decision processes under a complete set of scenarios within a multistage context are reflected. The results indicate that useful solutions for air quality management practices in sequential stochastic decision environments have been generated, which can help decision makers to identify cost-effective control strategies for overall air quality improvement under uncertainties.     

Chemical Composition of Air, Soil and Vegetation in Forests of the Silesian Beskid Moutains, Poland

For the first time concentrations of trace nitrogenous (N) air pollutants, gaseous nitric acid (HNO₃), nitrous acid (HNO₂), ammonia (NH₃), and fine particulate nitrate (NO₃) and ammonium (NH₄), were measured in the montane forests of southern Poland. Determinations were performed in two forest locations of the Silesian Beskid Mountains in the western range of the Carpathian Mountains, and in an industrial/urban location in Karowice, Poland. The measurements performed in summer 1997 with honeycomb denuder/filter pack systems showed elevated concentrations of the studied pollutants. These findings agree with the low carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratios and the results of ¹⁵N analyses of soil and moss samples. High concentrations of N air pollutants help to explain previously determined high levels of NO₃ and NH4 deposition to Norway spruce (Picea abies Karst.) canopies in these mountains. Ambient concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and ozone (O3) were elevated and potentially phytotoxic. Deficiencies of phosphorus (P) and magnesium (Mg) in Norway spruce foliage were found while concentrations of other nutrients were normal.     

The Relative Sensitivity of Different Mediterranean Plant Species to Ozone Exposure

An experimental study was performed in open-top chambers to assess the relative O₃-sensitivity of the following Mediterranean woody plants: Quercus ilex ssp. ilex, Quercus ilex ssp. ballota, Olea europaea ssp. sylvestris, Ceratonia siliqua and Arbutus unedo. Assessment of O₃ ‘sensitivity’ was based on the development of O₃-induced visible injury and the extent of the reduction in relative growth rate induced by O₃. Two-year-old seedlings were exposed in open-top chambers to charcoal filtered air (CFA), Non-filtered air (NFA) or Non-filtered air supplied with 40 ppb O₃ from 09:00 to 18:00 hours (NFA+40). No clear relationships were found between the development of visible injury and effects on plant growth or accumulated biomass. Olea europea ssp. sylvestris and Quercus ilex ssp. ballota appeared to be the most O₃-sensitive tree species screened; a ten month exposure to ambient O₃ levels (AOT40 = 12.4 ppm.h) caused reductions in height and/or stem growth. Further research is needed to characterise the physiological, biochemical and anatomical characteristics that may underlie the ‘sensitivity’ of certain Mediterranean species to O₃     

广东省沿海城市居民膳食结构及食物污染状况的调研——对持久性卤代烃和重金属的人体暴露水平评价

自改革开放以来,广东沿海城市逐步成为经济发展的热点地区。飞速的经济发展、快速的城市化进程以及有机氯农药的历史使用等原因,使得广东省内环境介质受到持久性卤代烃和重金属污染,这些污染物最终主要通过食物影响到处于生物链终端的人类。本文运用随机抽样的方法对广东省经济较发达的12个沿海城市居民的膳食情况进行问卷调查,分析其膳食营养状况。同时,结合该地区食物中持久性卤代烃和重金属的污染水平,对居民通过食物摄人的污染物进行人体暴露水平评价。结果表明,广东省沿海城市居民对蛋类、豆制品、乳品及水果的消费量均高于广东省平均水平,而蔬菜、禽肉和谷物的摄入量却低于广东省平均水平。与国家推荐摄人量相比,居民对蔬菜的摄入量仅为推荐量的一半,乳品的摄入也明显偏低。若以每标准人为单位,广东省沿海居民日均摄入能量低于全国平均值,占参考摄入量的90％,视黄醇、硫胺素、核黄素的日均摄入量也低于我国推荐值,而蛋白质和脂肪的日均摄入量则明显超出推荐值。而且,广东省沿海城市居民每日通过食物对持久性卤代烃的摄人量没有超过世界粮农组织和世界卫生组织（FAO／WHO）规定的每日允许摄入量。讨论了膳食中铅、砷、镉、铬4种金属的人体暴露情况,金属铅、砷和铬的暴露水平处于安全线内,但是金属镉的日均摄入量与FAO／WHO规定的最大耐受量相同。     

有机污染物污染土壤环境的植物修复机理

利用活的生物体对有毒有机物污染土壤环境的修复是一种被人们认为安全可靠的方法。植物修复是生物修复研究的热点。植物修复的机理包括植物对有机污染物的直接吸收、植物根系分泌物、微生物对根际环境中有机污染物降解的促进作用。     

Exposure of Canadian aboriginal peoples to methylmercury

Aboriginal peoples living a traditional lifestyle are potentially exposed to contaminants, such as methylmercury (MeHg), which bioaccumulate in aquatic ecosystems. A preliminary analysis of testing of Canadian indigenous people for MeHg from 1970 to 1992 is outlined. By December 1992,71,842 tests of 38,571 individuals had been carried out in 514 native communities across Canada. Of these, 8,847 individuals (23%) had blood, or blood equivalent, MeHg levels greater than 20 μg/l and 608 (1.6%) had levels over 100 μg/l. Clinical examinations were offered to all with levels greater than 100 μg/l in blood, but were unable to produce a definitive diagnosis. In an attempt to ascertain fetal exposure, 2,405 umbilical cord blood samples were taken. In about half of these cases the samples were paired with maternal levels. Of the cord samples 523 (21.8%) were found to have levels greater than 20 μg/l, and the highest level was 224 μg/l. The highest maternal level found was 86 μg/l. A discussion of the assessment of risk from exposure to MeHg in this population is presented as are the initial results of the 20 year retrospective analysis including seasonal exposure patterns and trends in exposure levels. Probable future intiatives based on this analysis are noted.     

退耕还林还草工作中需要研究解决的若干问题

分析研究了黄土高原区首批退耕还林还草试点示范县——绥德县的具体实践 ,指出在退耕还林还草中必须处理好如下问题 :(1)统一对退耕还林还草的认识 ;(2 )认真研究解决有关问题 ;(3)认真总结历史经验和教训 ;(4)退耕还林还草必须实行分类指导 ;(5 )从实际出发 ,走综合治理的路子。     

Exposure to Bioaerosol from Sewage Systems

We assessed the impacts of a specific conductance gradient attributable to treated coal-mining discharges on the fish communities of a southwestern Pennsylvania stream. Total dissolved solids concentrations were determined from specific conductance values. A total of 10,940 fish representing seven families and 42 species/hybrids were collected from 17 stations over the entire survey. Species richness, density, and the coefficient of community loss (I) showed marked impairment at the two stations directly below the discharges and the downstream recovery was interrupted at one station by untreated discharges from a mine refuse pile. Species richness declined from 28 at the reference site to 7 at the station directly below the treated effluents. This study suggests that the threshold for in-stream conductivity impairment to fish communities in this region is in the range of 3,000–3,500 µS/cm and 2,000–2,300 mg/l of total dissolved solids, respectively.