寡肽和氨基酸对奶牛的作用

给产奶牛补加过瘤胃蛋白质对提高乳蛋白含量和乳产量是一种基本的方法。奶牛在乳蛋白合成上也需要多肽或短肽, 它们在乳腺中可能作为前体直接参与乳蛋白合成。给奶牛通过注射补充混合氨基酸（ 必需ＡＡ＋ 非必需ＡＡ） 或只注射必需ＡＡ 都可提高奶产量并明显提高乳产量和蛋白含量,但乳糖含量有所下降。进而,向奶牛日粮中添加经保护处理的氨基酸,如Ｌｙｓ 、Ｍｅｔ 、Ｐｈｅ 、Ｈｉｓ ,能明显提高产奶量和乳蛋白含量。     

泌乳奶牛氨基酸营养

给产奶牛被加过瘤胃蛋白质如鱼粉和保护的大豆饼粕对提高乳蛋白含量和乳产量并不是最好的该方法。奶牛在乳蛋白合成也需要多肽或短肽，它们在乳腺中可能作为前体直接参与乳蛋白合成，奶牛通过注射补充混合氨基酸或只注射必需ＡＡ可都提高奶产量并明显提高乳蛋白含量和产量，但乳糖含量有所下降。     

稳定和提高牛奶蛋白质含量的营养策略

乳腺是一个复杂的器官,组织和细胞类型繁杂,乳腺氨基酸代谢受到众多因素影响,如日粮组成、氨基酸成分、饲料添加剂、瘤胃功能等等。足量的比例平衡的氨基酸对奶牛营养具有重要意义,了解氨基酸的供应与平衡可以预测乳蛋白的产出。日粮蛋白质和氨基酸对乳蛋白含量与产量有重要影响。在大部分日粮条件下,蛋氨酸是第一限制性氨基酸,通过理化方法保护蛋氨酸过瘤胃可以改善蛋氨酸的生物有效性。此外,赖氨酸和支链氨基酸(异亮氨酸、亮氨酸、缬氨酸等)对于乳蛋白合成也很重要。当氨基酸不足以用于乳蛋白合成时,可从肽结合氨基酸库中释放。某些情况下,氨基酸平衡对乳蛋白合成的重要性更甚于日粮蛋白质的含量,适宜比例的必需氨基酸能增加乳蛋白合成,氨基酸平衡的改善可促进乳蛋白合成,提高奶产量。当日粮粗饲料质量较差时,可溶性碳水化合物可能成为瘤胃微生物蛋白质合成的限制因素,导致乳蛋白前体物数量下降。需要同时优化瘤胃内微生物蛋白质合成和适宜补充氨基酸,才能满足乳蛋白合成的需要。     

隐性乳房炎奶牛乳蛋白含量降低的信号转导机制探讨

乳蛋白是决定牛奶营养品质的主要乳成分之一,具有较高的营养价值,含有人体几乎所有的必需氨基酸。乳蛋白含量和组成受多种因素的影响,除品种、胎次、环境、奶牛泌乳阶段、饲粮组成与营养水平外,疾病也是影响乳汁中乳蛋白含量和组成的重要因素。其中,奶牛隐性乳房炎可以引起乳汁中乳蛋白含量的降低。本文主要探讨乳蛋白的合成机理及隐性乳房炎时乳蛋白含量降低的信号转导机制,旨在为研究在奶牛患隐性乳房炎条件下提高乳蛋白含量的方法提供一些思路和参考。     

瘤胃保护性氨基酸及对其对奶牛生产性能的影响

蛋氨酸或赖氨酸通常被认为是合成奶牛乳蛋白的第一限制性氨基酸，对反刍动物来说，补充游离氨基酸效果不佳，对氨基酸加以保护可以弥补一缺陷。瘤胃保护性氨基酸可分为两大类：一类是氨基酸的类似物、衍生物或聚合物，另一类是包被氨基酸。不同的保护方法，其抵抗微生物降解的能力和肠道内的可利用性不一，同一包被氨基酸在不同的日粮类型中其稳定性也有差异，其中以对pH不敏感的多聚合物包被氨基酸效果较好。饲喂保护氨基酸对奶牛的干物质采食量和产奶量没有明显影响但能提高蛋白质利用率，增加乳蛋白含量，对菌体蛋白的合成无不利影响。     

营养素和催乳激素通过哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶点调控乳蛋白的合成

研究结果表明,营养和内分泌系统影响奶牛乳腺内乳蛋白的翻译过程,但其分子机制还不是很清楚。因此,本试验旨在研究营养素和激素通过哺乳动物雷帕霉素(mTOR)信号路径对乳蛋白合成的影响。氨基酸混合物(AA)、能量底物(葡萄糖和醋酸盐)和激素混合物(皮质醇、胰岛素和催乳素)分别或混合添加到培养乳腺腺泡(泌乳奶牛乳腺中分离)的培养媒介中,同时测定乳蛋白合成和mTOR信号路径元件的磷酸化状态。结果表明,AA单独添加时比能量底物或激素混合物单独添加时,乳蛋白的合成提高50%。乳蛋白的合成不受葡萄糖或催乳素的影响。AA能刺激乳蛋白的合成,催乳素同时添加能够进一步增强乳蛋白的合成,但葡萄糖同时添加不能增强这种作用。催乳素能够诱导蛋白激酶B的磷酸化状态,并且AA或葡萄糖同时作为底物时能够增强这种磷酸化状态。AA和催乳素在刺激乳蛋白的合成和进一步提高乳蛋白合成的同时,也提高了mTOR底物(p70核糖体蛋白S6激酶±1、真核起始因子4E(eIF4E)结合蛋白-1(4E-BP1)和4E-BP1的分化异变体)的磷酸化状态。结果暗示营养素和激素可能通过mTOR信号路径调控乳蛋白的合成。     

营养素和激素通过哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶标信号通路调控乳蛋白合成

营养物质和内分泌虽能影响奶牛乳蛋白的合成,但至今这种调控作用的分子机制仍未完全阐明。本研究的目的是测定营养物质和激素是否是通过哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶标(mTOR)信号通路调控乳蛋白合成。试验从泌乳奶牛乳腺组织中分离乳腺腺泡,用含有氨基酸(AA)、葡萄糖和乙酸(GA)或催乳激素(HIP)以其混合物的培养基处理腺泡,然后测定乳蛋白合成速率和mTOR信号通路中各元件的磷酸化状态。结果发现,培养基添加AA后可使乳蛋白合成率提高50%,而单独添加GA或HIP不影响乳蛋白合成。HIP可以增强AA调控乳蛋白合成,但GA没有增强AA的这种作用。HIP可诱导蛋白激酶B发生磷酸化,而且当AA或GA存在时,HIP能增强这种磷酸化作用。AA和HIP对乳蛋白合成的促进作用与mTOR的底物磷酸化有关,即与p70核糖体蛋白S6激酶-1和真核起始因子4E(eIF4E)结合蛋白-1(4E-BP1)的磷酸化有关。结果表明,营养物质和激素可能通过mTOR信号通路调控乳蛋白合成。     

淀粉和氨基酸对泌乳奶牛乳腺内乳蛋白合成调控的影响

本试验旨在研究乳腺内局部分子适应以调控乳蛋白的合成。研究假设氨基酸和产能底物通过系统和局部机制组合独立调控乳腺内氨基酸的代谢和乳蛋白的合成。试验选用6头具瘤胃瘘管的初产泌乳中期荷斯坦奶牛,随即分配到4个处理组中。试验采用重复的不完全4×4拉丁方试验设计。试验期间,试验动物的基础日粮组成(17.6%粗蛋白质和6.61MJ/kg泌乳净能)相同。泌乳奶牛限饲采食量至70%并通过蠕动泵连续36h分别灌注水、酪蛋白(0.86kg/d)、淀粉(2kg/d)和淀粉与酪蛋白的混合物(2kg/d淀粉+0.86kg/d酪蛋白)。整个试验期间测定乳产量和乳成分组成;灌注的最后8h每20min采集动脉和静脉血浆样品,用于测定乳腺对氨基酸的吸收率;每期灌注末采集乳腺组织样品,用于评定调控乳蛋白合成的细胞内信号分子磷酸化位点。结果显示,灌注酪蛋白组增加了动脉血浆中氨基酸的浓度,提高了乳腺从血浆中摄取氨基酸的效率,但对氨基酸的清除率和乳蛋白的产量没有影响。灌注淀粉组增加了乳产量和乳蛋白产量,提高了乳腺血浆流量,但降低了动脉血浆中氨基酸的浓度,同时,提高了乳腺对氨基酸的清除率和乳腺对氨基酸的净吸收量。灌注淀粉组同时提高了血浆中葡萄糖、胰岛素和胰岛素样生长因子-1的浓度,核糖体蛋白S6的磷酸化和内皮型一氧化氮合成酶含量也随之提高并伴随着乳蛋白产量和血浆流量的变化。灌注酪蛋白和淀粉的混合物处理组提高了哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶标的磷酸化。结果表明,不同的营养素刺激,乳蛋白合成调控的细胞信号分子机制反应不同。试验过程中,由于灌注酪蛋白对乳蛋白合成的影响不明显,未发现试验假设的酪蛋白和淀粉对动物代谢和细胞信号传导的独立效应。     

日粮中添加蛋氨酸对奶牛产奶性能的研究

蛋氨酸 (或赖氨酸 )通常被认为是合成奶牛乳蛋白的第一限制性氨基酸 ,很多报道 ,对反刍动物来说 ,补充游离氨基酸效果不佳 ,对氨基酸加以保护可以弥补这一缺陷。但也有相反的报道。试验通过在日粮中添加蛋氨酸对上述结论进行验证。试验分为试验 1组、试验 2组和对照组。试验 1组日粮中添加蛋氨酸 ,试验 2组日粮中添加保护性蛋氨酸 ,通过 4 9d的集中饲养奶牛试验 ,结果表明 ,奶牛日粮中添加保护性蛋氨酸比添加普通蛋氨酸能明显的提高乳蛋白率 1 .6 2 % ,其他指标变化不明显     

奶牛过瘤胃蛋氨酸营养研究进展

过瘤胃蛋氨酸是奶牛泌乳和乳蛋白合成的主要限制性氨基酸之一,小肠可消化蛋氨酸的缺乏是影响奶牛高产和乳品质提高的重要因素,添加过瘤胃蛋氨酸能够提高奶牛产奶量和乳蛋白含量。     

氨基酸影响奶牛乳腺内乳脂合成的机理

乳蛋白前体物主要有游离氨基酸和小肽等。氨基酸不仅能影响乳腺内乳蛋白的合成,而且对乳脂的合成起一定的调控作用。本文主要阐述了氨基酸在乳脂合成过程中的调节作用,并从乳腺对乳脂前体物的摄取规律、乳脂合成相关基因表达、哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白和腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶信号通路的角度综述了氨基酸对乳脂合成的可能机理,为进一步研究乳脂合成机理及改进牛奶营养品质提供理论依据。     

十二指肠大豆小肽梯度灌注对山羊乳腺氨基酸吸收与氨肽酶N基因表达的影响

旨在研究乳腺对不同水平大豆小肽的吸收利用情况.试验选用8只带有十二指肠瘘管和颈动脉、乳静脉血插管的泌乳奶山羊(体质量38 kg±k2 kg),采用交叉设计,分别向十二指肠灌注大豆小肽0、60、120和180 g·d~(-1),连续灌注14 d.结果表明:通过小肽的灌注,(1)提高了乳蛋白产量与乳蛋白含量,而且乳蛋白产量显著提高(P＜0.05).乳脂产量与乳脂含量随着灌注量的升高呈显著下降趋势(P＜0.05).(2)乳腺血浆流星有轻微的提高,但不显著(P＞0.05).与对照组相比,各处理组血浆流量/产奶量出现下降,但只有120 g·~(-1)灌注组下降显著(P＜0.05).(3)与对照组相比,大部分游离氨基酸在60和120 g·d~(-1)灌注组吸收量增加,而在180 g·d~(-1)灌注组出现下降趋势.除了PB-Ile,大豆小肽的灌注增加了所有肽结合必需氨基酸的乳腺吸收.但PB-Val、PB-Leu、PB-Phe、PB-Thr、PB-Met和PB-Lys均在120 g·d~(-1)灌注组吸收率最高.非必需氨基酸中,小肽的灌注提高了PB-Ser、PBTyr、PB-Pro的吸收(P＜0.05),而PB-Gly的吸收却出现了下降(P＞0.05).(4)除了Lys,处理组中所有必需氨基酸的乳中分泌量都高于对照组,从0～120 g·d~(-1)试验组,这些氨基酸乳中分泌量随着小肽灌注量的升高而呈增加趋势(P＜0.05);在180 g·d~(-1)灌注组,大部分必需氨基酸的分泌量增加不显著(P＞0.05),且低于120 g·d~(-1)灌注组.(5)小肽的灌注明显促进了APN基因的表达.灌注60、120和180 g·d~(-1)小肽后,氨肽酶N(APN)的表达分别是对照组的13.55、18.69和10.01倍.结论:乳腺组织能够吸收动脉血液中的小肽,大豆小肽的灌注提高了乳蛋白产量显示乳腺组织可以将吸收的小肽用于乳蛋白的合成.但当乳腺所需的氨基酸达到饱和以后,再增加氨基酸的浓度会出现吸收抑制.APN表达变化与乳腺小肽吸收增加相一致,这可能因为APN是调控小肽乳腺吸收利用的主要酶类之一.     

Effects of rumen-protected methionine in a low protein ration on metabolic traits and performance of early lactating cows as opposed to rations with elevated crude protein content

A 5‐week experiment with 24 multiparous early lactating Brown Swiss cows was conducted to investigate the effects of supplementary rumen‐protected methionine in conjunction with dietary protein reduction on metabolism and performance after 1 week of control measurement. Three rations containing 175, 150 and 125 g of crude protein/kg feed dry matter were supplemented with methionine. The fourth ration, also only containing 125 g of crude protein/kg dry matter, remained unsupplemented. The four treatment groups had a similar metabolic supply of other essential amino acids, protein and energy, as calculated by various approaches. The two low protein rations were, however, slightly deficient in ruminally degraded protein. Treatment effects remained low on feed intake, forage meal pattern, milk yield and fat as well as lactose content. In contrast, the content and yield of milk protein significantly declined only in the unsupplemented low protein ration relative to the initial value. Compared with this ration, the decline in milk protein yield was clearly delayed in the supplemented low protein ration. Blood plasma methionine tended to be reduced without supplementation and to be increased with additional methionine. Supplementation of methionine reduced other plasma amino acids. Plasma insulin, glucose, lactate, ketone bodies and aspartate amino transferase activity indicated a certain liver stress and a somewhat elevated energy requirement with high and particularly with low protein content (when unsupplemented). Methionine improved metabolic protein utilization, followed by the lowest plasma, urine and milk urea levels in the supplemented low protein diet. In conclusion, no major adverse effects were assessed under the conditions tested. Supplementation of methionine may nevertheless be useful in rations with particularly low protein content fed to early lactating cows in order to prevent negative long‐term effects which were only visible here as trends.     

Chemical composition of Mongolian mare milk

Abstract

This study was carried out to determine the influence of three ecological regions and two milking seasons on daytime milk yield, chemical composition, protein fraction distribution and amino acids (AA) profile of milk samples from Mongolian native breed mares under traditional nomadic pasture conditions. Average daily daytime milk yield was 3975 ml. The milk contained 11.0% total solids, 2.0% fat, 6.6% lactose, 2.2% protein and 0.3% ash on average. Content of true whey protein was 36.8% and of casein 52.4%, respectively. Sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis demonstrated that the whey fraction contained 37.1% α-lactalbumin, 29.6% β-lactoglobulin, 16.1% immunoglobulins, 8.1% lactoferrin and 4.7% lysozyme. The content of essential AA in the protein fraction was 48.4%. Results show that composition of mare milk can be influenced by regional differences.     

日粮中富含限制性必需氨基酸发酵肽对奶牛产奶量和乳品质的影响

研究富含限制性必需氨基酸发酵肽对泌乳中期奶牛产奶量及乳品质的影响。试验选用15头体质量、胎次、产奶量均相近的泌乳180d中国荷斯坦奶牛,采用完全随机区组设计,分为对照组、0．5％和1％发酵肽实验组。结果表明：0．5％和1％发酵肽实验组奶牛产奶量、乳蛋白率、乳脂率及乳干物质率与对照组相比差异均显著升高（P〈0．01）,产奶量分别提高11．0％和13．7％,乳蛋白率分别提高5．6％和6．6％,乳脂率分别提高7．0％和7．5％,乳干物质率分别提高0．25％和0．67％,乳糖率也有一定程度的提高。结果表明：日粮中添加富含限制性必需氨基酸发酵肽可以很好地提高奶牛产奶量、乳蛋白率和乳脂率。     

Effect of rumen protected methionine supplementation on early lactational responses of dairy cows fed a grass silage and cereals diet.

To investigate the milk production limiting potential of a diet based on grass silage (40%), hay (15%), dried sugar beet pulp (13%) and grain compound mixture (32%), 28 multiparous cows in early lactation were randomly assigned to two treatment groups: a control group and a group receiving supplementary rumen protected methionine (RPMet) treatment (12 g intestinally available methionine/cow/day, given 1-120 days postpartum; Smartamine; RPAN's technology). The diet was formulated to meet the requirements for protein and net energy. RPMet supplementation had no significant effect on DMI (kg/cow/day), milk dry mass, milk lactose and milk urea contents. Responses for mean daily milk yield, mean milk fat and milk protein yields were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in cows supplied with RPMet than in controls. Mean daily milk yield, milk protein and milk fat yields increased by 2.4 kg, 108 g and 124 g, respectively. The mean daily milk protein and casein contents were increased by 1.8 g and 0.9 g and milk fat content by 1.2 g in 1 kg of milk, respectively. The results suggest that in cows fed grass silage and a grain compound mixture milk production is limited by methionine insufficiency, but milk production performance can be increased significantly by the addition of RPMet to the diet.     

Utilization of milk amino acids by the suckling Iberian piglet

Sixteen pure-bred Iberian (IB) sows were used in two trials to determine the efficiency of utilization of milk protein and amino acid (AA) for growth in suckling piglets. It was hypothesized that there may be one or more strongly limiting essential AA (EAA) responsible for the slow rate of growth of the IB piglet. This AA will show the highest fractional retention. Daily milk yield and composition were determined weekly over a 34-day lactation period. Within each litter, one piglet at birth and four piglets on d 35 of life were slaughtered. The protein content of the IB sow milk was similar to that reported for conventional breeds. However, branched-chain AA, Thr, Pro, Asp and Ala were in concentrations somewhat below the range of literature values and Arg and Met, substantially above it. Milk intake per piglet tended to be greater in Trial 2 (832 vs. 893 g/day respectively; p = 0.066). However, the IB piglets grew at 168 ± 3.3 g/day, irrespective of the trial. The whole-body protein of piglets at weaning and the protein deposited in their body during the lactating period showed very close AA pattern. Among EAA, His and Arg show the highest fractional retentions (g AA retained/g AA ingested) in whole-body tissues (1.019 ± 0.025 and 0.913 ± 0.017 respectively) and also the highest body to milk ratios (1.50 and 1.41 respectively). Gly and Ala presented, among non essential AA, the highest efficiencies of utilization for tissue deposition (1.803 ± 0.057 and 1.375 ± 0.026 respectively) and body to milk ratios (2.75 and 2.12 respectively). These results suggest that the low efficiency of utilization of milk protein and the low rate of gain of the IB suckling piglet can be explained by a marked shortage in His supply, in addition to the suboptimal milk provision of Arg, Gly and Ala.     

The market for amino acids: understanding supply and demand of substrate for more efficient milk protein synthesis

For dairy production systems, nitrogen is an expensive nutrient and potentially harmful waste product. With three quarters of fed nitrogen ending up in the manure, significant research efforts have focused on understanding and mitigating lactating dairy cows' nitrogen losses. Recent changes proposed to the Nutrient Requirement System for Dairy Cattle in the US include variable efficiencies of absorbed essential AA for milk protein production. This first separation from a purely substrate-based system, standing on the old limiting AA theory, recognizes the ability of the cow to alter the metabolism of AA. In this review we summarize a compelling amount of evidence suggesting that AA requirements for milk protein synthesis are based on a demand-driven system. Milk protein synthesis is governed at mammary level by a set of transduction pathways, including the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1(mTORC1), the integrated stress response(ISR), and the unfolded protein response(UPR). In tight coordination, these pathways not only control the rate of milk protein synthesis, setting the demand for AA, but also manipulate cellular AA transport and even blood flow to the mammary glands, securing the supply of those needed nutrients. These transduction pathways, specifically mTORC1, sense specific AA, as well as other physiological signals, including insulin, the canonical indicator of energy status. Insulin plays a key role on mTORC1 signaling, controlling its activation, once AA have determined mTORC1 localization to the lysosomal membrane.Based on this molecular model, AA and insulin signals need to be tightly coordinated to maximize milk protein synthesis rate. The evidence in lactating dairy cows supports this model, in which insulin and glucogenic energy potentiate the effect of AA on milk protein synthesis. Incorporating the effect of specific signaling AA and the differential role of energy sources on utilization of absorbed AA for milk protein synthesis seems like the evident following step in nutrient requirement systems to further improve N efficiency in lactating dairy cow rations.     

Board-invited review: Peptide absorption and utilization: Implications for animal nutrition and health

Over the last 50 yr, the study of intestinal peptide transport has rapidly evolved into a field with exciting nutritional and biomedical applications. In this review, we describe from a historical and current perspective intestinal peptide transport, the importance of peptides to whole-body nutrition, and the cloning and characterization of the intestinal peptide transporter, PepT1. We focus on the nutritional significance of peptide transport and relate these findings to livestock and poultry. Amino acids are transported into the enterocyte as free AA by a variety of AA transporters that vary in substrate specificity or as di- and tripeptides by the peptide transporter, PepT1. Expression of PepT1 is largely restricted to the small intestine in most species; however, in ruminants, peptide transport and activity is observed in the rumen and omasum. The extent to which peptides are absorbed and utilized is still unclear. In ruminants, peptides make a contribution to the portal-drained visceral flux of total AA and are detected in circulating plasma. Peptides can be utilized by the mammary gland for milk protein synthesis and by a variety of other tissues. We discuss the factors known to regulate expression of PepT1 including development, diet, hormones, diurnal rhythm, and disease. Expression of PepT1 is detected during embryological stages in both birds and mammals and increases with age, a strategic event that allows for the immediate uptake of nutrients after hatch or birth. Both increasing levels of protein in the diet and dietary protein deficiencies are found to upregulate the peptide transporter. We also include in this review a discussion of the use of dietary peptides and potential alternate routes of nutrient delivery to the cell. Our goal is to impart to the reader the nutritional implications of peptide transport and dietary peptides and share discoveries that shed light on various biological processes, including rapid establishment of intestinal function in early neonates and maintenance of intestinal function during fasting, starvation, and disease states.     

Triennial Lactation Symposium: Mammary metabolism of amino acids in dairy cows

Although in dairy cows the mammary gland (MG) is the major net user of essential AA (EAA) supply, milk protein synthesis from absorbed EAA is not a straightforward process. Early studies identified 2 groups of EAA based on different pattern of mammary utilization: group 1 [Met, Phe (+Tyr), Trp], where MG uptake was similar to secretion in milk protein, and group 2 (Arg, Ile, Leu, Lys, Thr, and Val), where uptake exceeded milk protein output. This review examines the validity of this classification under variable protein supply through a meta-analysis, with the outcomes then explained with studies in which the fates of individual EAA were monitored using isotope approaches. For the meta-analysis, the Fick principle, based on stoichiometric transfer of Phe+Tyr uptake to milk protein, was used to estimate mammary plasma flow across all studies. This approach was judged acceptable because doubling Phe supply did not result in mammary oxidation of Phe+Tyr and either limited or no contribution of peptides to Phe and Tyr mammary supply could be detected. The AA content of proteins synthesized by the MG was estimated from milk protein composition, and the uptake-to-output ratio (U:O) for individual AA was re-calculated based on these assumptions. Analysis of individual samples by isotopic dilution resulted in reduced variance compared with analysis on pooled samples performed with an AA analyzer. Globally, the U:O of His and Met is maintained close to unity under variable protein supply. The group 2 AA could be subdivided. First, the U:O for group "2v" AA (Ile, Leu, Val, and Lys) is greater than 1 and varied with protein supply. Accordingly, the increased U:O of Leu, induced by duodenal casein infusion, led to extra-mammary Leu oxidation. Decreasing Lys supply decreased Lys U:O and the associated transfer of N to non-EAA, mainly to Glx, Asx, Ser, and Ala. Second, the U:O of group "2nv" AA, Arg and Thr, does not vary with protein supply. The Arg U:O averages 2.5, whereas the Thr U:O, albeit averaging 1.2, does not differ from unity. Excess of both these AA is probably directed toward the synthesis of non-EAA rather than energy supply. Overall, the ability of the MG to use excess EAA-N supply offers alternative sources of N and C for energy provision, lactose synthesis and non-EAA synthesis. The latter function spares dietary non-EAA for other necessary processes, such as gluconeogenesis and energy supply, in other tissues to support lactation.