Seed production by an arable weed community

After cultivation in early April of a sandy loam soil with 9500 apparently viable seeds/m² in 0–10 cm, 295 seedlings/m² emerged of which about half survived to maturity in July. Seeds were dispersed from mid-June to November and 136,460/m² were returned to the soil, representing a 14-fold increase in the seed bank. Application of soil-acting herbicides reduced the numbers of weeds and the total seed output, but that of tolerant species was increased. Maximum numbers of seeds were 59,980/m² for Chenopodium album, 39,430/m² for Sleltaria media and 37,580/m² for Veronica persica.     

Testing the spatial significance of weed patterns in arable land using Mead's test

There is a need in weed science for statistical tests for patchiness and spatial pattern. The objective of this study was to investigate the performance of Mead’s test for detecting patterns in synthetic data and in real weed counts made in maize, and making a first assessment of its applicability in ecological studies on weeds. In an extension to Mead’s test, made here for the first time, we merge original quadrat count data into rectangular cells of m by n quadrats. Care was taken to rule out the effect of starting point on the test result. Using the synthetic data, we demonstrate the ability of the test to detect both patchiness and homogeneity as deviations from randomness. The first deviation results in right‐sided significance, and the second in left‐sided significance of the test. Analysis of the real weed patterns demonstrated patchiness at many scales for five of the six investigated species and lack of any deviation from randomness in the sixth: Taraxacum officinale. The latter was the only wind dispersing species in the dataset. No deviation towards homogeneity was found in any of the real weed species at any scale. All patchy patterns showed anisotropy, being elongated in the direction of field traffic. As it turns out, Mead’s test is well suited to detect departures from randomness in observed weed patterns and enhances the suite of diagnostic tools that can be employed by weed ecologists.     

Field-scale estimates of grass weed populations in arable land

Estimates of numbers of weed grass inflorescences in a single wheat field were made using 0·25 m² quadrat counts. Precise estimates of mean field density could be achieved only at high sampling intensity, at least 18 locations (m²) ha^-1. The standard error expressed as a percentage of the mean was less than 20% for more abundant species and over 30% for rarer species at that sampling intensity. However, the data were highly skewed and followed a negative binomial frequency distribution for each species. This implies it may be usual for arable weeds that plants are clumped, with clumps occurring at random. A computer mapping program that interpolates arithmetically between sample points did not reflect accurately plant distributions and was affected by sampling intensity. The implications for decision making for weed control using densities are discussed. Estimation au champ des populations de mauvaises herbes en terrains cultivés Des estimations du nombre d'inflorescences de mauvaises herbes dans un champ de blé ont été faites en utilisant des comptages au cadre de 0,25 m². Les statistiques ont montré que l'estimation de la densité moyenne du champ peut être précise seulement avec une grande intensité de l'échantillonage au moins 18 situations (m²) ha^-1. L'erreur standard exprimée en pourcentage était inférieure à 20% pour les espèces les plus abondantes et supérieure à 30% pour les plus rares, à cette densité d'échantillonnage. Cependant, les données étaient très biaisées et suivaient une fréquence de distribution binomiale négative pour chaque espèce. Cette distribution, qui implique que les plantes sont en touffe, peut être commune pour les adventices des terres labourées. Une représentation graphique par ordinnateur n'a pas donné un reflet exact de la distribution des plantes et était très affectée par la densité d'échantillonnage. Les possibilités de la prise de décision de la mise en oeuvre d'un désherbage à partir des densités d'adventices sont discutées. Schätzung von Gräserpopulationen auf Äckern In einem Weizenfeld wurde die Dichte der Infloreszenzen von Gräsern mit einem Zählrahmen (0,25 m²) bestimmt. Bei der statistischen Analyse zeigte sich, dass die mittlere Dichte nur bei einer hohen Probendichte von mindestens 18 ha^-1 genau geschätzt werden konnte. Der Standard-fehler, ausgedrückt in Prozent vom Mittelwert, war bei dieser Stichprobendichte geringer als 20% für die häufigeren Arten und über 30% für die selteneren. Die Daten jeder Art folgten einer negativen Binomialverieilung mit ausgeprägter Schiefe. Diese Verteilung spiegelt das aggregierte (geklumpte) Auftreten der Pflanzen wider, wobei die Befallsnester zufällig verteilt sind, was für Ackerunkräuter charakteristisch ist. Ein Computer-Program zur Darstellung der Verbreitung mit arithmetrischer Interpolation zwischen den Stichprobenpunkten gab die reale Verteilung nicht genau wieder und hing von der Stichprobendichte ab. Schlussfolgerungen für die Entscheidung über Unkrautbekämpfungsmassnahmen auf der Grundlage von Unkrautdichten werden diskutiert.     

Interannual variation in weed biomass on arable land in Sweden

Data were analysed on weed biomass from untreated plots in 2672 field experiments conducted in spring- and autumn-sown cereal and oilseed crops in Sweden 1972–1992. The coefficient of variation (CV) among years in the biomass of annual weeds per square metre was 29% in autumn-sown crops. In spring-sown crops, which had less weed biomass, the corresponding value was 49%. The biomass of summer annuals varied most (105%). Low winter temperatures seemed to increase the biomass of weeds in autumn-sown crops. In spring-sown crops, weed biomass production was higher in years with high rainfall during late spring. Partial ordination (pCCA) of weed data indicated that the interannual variations in autumn-sown crops were mainly manifested by the occurrence of summer annuals. Results from similar ordination of data from spring-sown crops were partly explained by the occurrence of winter annuals.     

The response of four spring-sown combinable arable crops to weed competition

The response of four spring-sown combinable arable crops [Pisum sativum (peas), Hordeum vulgare (barley), Vicia faba (beans), Brassica napus (oilseed rape)] to competition from cultivated oats (Avena sativa), mimicking wild-oats (Avena fatua), was studied in three field experiments (1989–91). Reductions in crop growth and yield per oat plant m^?2 were calculated from regressions of weight (yield) against oat numbers. Competitive effects from the oats were greatest in 1991, the year with the highest rainfall. The oats had least effect on the barley and rape (yield loss per oat plant m^?2=0–2.3%), and most effect on the peas and beans (0.34–7.18%). Samples harvested during the summer showed how the crops' responses to competition from oats changed as they matured. Data was also collected on the effects of the crops on the oats. The results are discussed in relation to the development of threshold-based systems of weed management. La réponse de quatre cultures de printemps à la compétition des mauvaises herbes La réponse de quatre cultures de printemps [Pisum sativum (pois), Hordeum vulgare (orge), Vicia faba (féverolle), Brassica napus (colza)] à la compétition de l'avoine cultivée (Avenasativa) prise comme modèle de folle avoine (Avena fatua) a étéétudiée lors de trois expérimentations au champ (1989–91). Les réductions de croissance et de rendement des plantes cultivées en fonction de la densité de I'avoine ont été calculées par des régressions entre le poids (rendement) et le nombre de pieds d'avoine m^?2. L'effet compétitif de I'avoine fut le plus important en 1991, période oò les précipitations furent les plus élevées. L'effet de I'avoine était le moins important sur 1'orge et le colza (la perte de rendement par pied d'avoine m^?2était comprise entre 0 et 2,3%) et le plus important sur le pois et la féverolle (0.34–7.18%). Des échantillons récoltés pendant l'été ont montré comment les réponses des plantes cultivées a la compétition de 1'avoine se sont modif iées au cours de la maturation. Des données sur les effets des plantes cultivées sur les avoines ont aussi été recueillies. Les résultats sont discutés en relation avec le développement de systàmes de lutte contre les mauvaises herbes basés sur les seuils de nuisibilité. Unkrautkonkurrenz in vier Sommerkulturen Die Konkurrenz von Saat-Hafer (Avena sativa) als Modell für Flag-Hafer (Avena fatua) wurde in 4 Sommerkulturen [Erbse (Pisum sativum), Gerste (Hordeum vulgare), Acker-Bohne (Vicia faba) und Raps (Brassica napus)] in 3 Freiland-versuchen (1989–91) untersucht. Die Wachtums-und Ertragsreduktion je nach der Hafer-Dichte wurde nach der Gewichts- bzw. Ertragseinbuße berechnet. Die Konkurrenz durch den Hafer war 1991, dem Jahr mil dem höchsten Niederschlag, am gröBten: auf Gerste und Raps war sie am geringsten (0 bis 2.3 % Ertragsverlust pro Hafer-Pflanze m^?2), auf Erbse und Acker-Bohne (0.34 bis 7.18 %) am stärksten. Durch Messungen der Biomasse wahrend der Vegetationsperiode konnte gezeigt werden, wie sich die Konkurrenz durch den Hafer bis zur Abreife änderte. Auch die Kulturpflanzenkonkurrenz auf den Hafer wurde bestimmt. Die Bedeutung der Ergebnisse für die Entwicklung von Bekämpfungssystemen auf der Grundlage von Schadensschwellen werden diskutiert.     

Increasing weed flora in Danish arable fields and its importance for biodiversity

A number of political initiatives have been implemented to meet growing concerns about negative side effects of the intensification of land‐use practice over the past 25 years. Declining species diversity and abundance and pollution of the environment have been reported worldwide. In order to assess the overall effect on wild flora of the changing management of arable land, national surveys are necessary. Surveys of the weed flora in Danish arable fields were conducted in 1987–89 and 2001–04. The frequency of common weed species in spring barley, spring rape, winter rye, winter wheat and grass leys was compared between time periods. Weed frequency increased overall during the interval. Species that are of particular importance as food sources for invertebrates and birds increased considerably in some of the crops. The frequency of some grass species increased remarkably, possibly because of increased areas of winter crops. Some perennial weeds also became more frequent, probably caused by less mechanical weed control and a reduction in the use of specific herbicides. The dominant weed species in 2001–04, with frequency higher than 10%, were largely the same as in 1987–89, but included three new species in 2001–04. Only a few species occurred less frequently in 2001–04 than in 1987–89 and only in some crops. As common weed species make up an important food reservoir for wildlife, new trends in the management of arable land in Denmark seem to have led to more biodiversity.     

Emergence patterns of weed seedlings in relation to cultivation and rainfall

In experiments over 4 years, separate field plots were cultivated once only at 2-week intervals and the weed seedlings recorded weekly. Soil disturbance resulted in a flush of seedlings of which 90% appeared within 10 weeks after cultivation in early spring and within 3 weeks after cultivation in summer. Weekly emergence then returned to the level prevailing on undisturbed soil. The species composition of the seedling populations varied with the time of year at which the soil was disturbed. In each year there was a spring flush of seedlings, probably associated with rising soil temperature; subsequent flushes were coincident on cultivated and undisturbed soil and were related to the rainfall pattern. In each year there were periods when lack of soil moisture restricted emergence, and this appeared to be the over-riding factor determining seedling numbers. When cultivations were followed by long dry periods which prevented germination, the numbers of seedlings appearing when rain ultimately fell were no different from those when the soil was disturbed just before the rainfall.     

A comparison of techniques for estimation of arable soil seedbanks and their relationship to weed flora

Summary. Post harvest soil samples taken during the autumn of 1985 and 1986 were split and estimates made of the weed seedbank using two methods: (1) a physical separation of seed from the soil mineral fraction by a sieving/flotation procedure and (2) by placing soil in shallow containers in a greenhouse where seeds could germinate and be periodically counted over a period of eight months. Seedbank estimates derived from each procedure were analysed to determine the suitability of each technique for detecting treatment differences from an experiment evaluating tillage/herbicide effects on weed populations. Both techniques were suitable for determination of seedbank changes due to different tillage treatments and herbicide inputs. The two techniques also proved effective for detection of individual species in the seedbank and the two techniques provided comparable estimates of the relative density of individual weed species in the seedbank. Weed seedbank estimates obtained by the physical extraction procedure from the autumn 1985 soil samples were correlated with weed seedling counts made in the spring of 1986. In most cases, weed seedlings represented less than 10% of the number of seeds estimated by physical extraction the preceding autumn. Individual species seed estimates and subsequent weed counts were poorly correlated which indicated that the seed count estimates alone were poor predictors of weed flora.     

Aquatic weed assemblages in an Iberian drainage channel system and related environmental factors

The composition, cover and weed expression of the macrophytic assemblages found in an Iberian irrigation system, as well as local environmental features, were studied in 100 sites. Species with more than 40% average cover included the exotics Myriophyllum aquaticum     

The persistence of seeds of 16 weed species over six years in two arable fields

Summary Two experiments have investigated the persistence of 16 arable, annual broad-leaved weed species over 6 years in a silty loam and a clay soil. Small plastic beads were included as an 'inert' comparison. Seeds were broadcast in October on to plots at the start of the experiment, and these were either tine cultivated or ploughed annually thereafter. Plots were sown with either spring or winter wheat. As far as possible, weed seeding was prevented each year. For some species, the seed decline appeared to be slower on the ploughed plots than on the tined plots and in the winter wheat compared with the spring wheat. Seed decline also tended to be slower on the clay soil at Rothamsted than on the silty loam at Long Ashton. Some species declined rapidly (e.g. Brassica napus , Chrysanthemum segetum , Galium aparine , Galeopsis tetrahit ), with annual decline rates in excess of 58%, whereas others declined very little (e.g. Papaver rhoeas decline rate 9%). Most of the other species had decline rates between 20% and 40%. The results are discussed in relation to the development of population dynamics models to predict long-term consequences of alternative weed management strategies.     

Intraregional and inter‐regional variability of herbicide sensitivity in common arable weed populations

The question on intraregional versus inter‐regional variability in herbicide sensitivity for weed populations is of major importance, both in extrapolation of model parameters and in herbicide zonal approval procedures. We hypothesised that inter‐regional variability in herbicide sensitivity for field populations would be the same as intraregional variability for regions with similar climatic conditions. Seeds of field weed populations were collected in a Danish, German and Polish region. Herbicide sensitivity was tested in dose–response experiments in the glasshouse with flufenacet and iodosulfuron (Apera spica‐venti), florasulam and tribenuron (Tripleurospermum inodorum), diflufenican, diflufenican + flurtamone and pendimethalin (Viola arvensis). ED₅₀ values and variance components of the ED₅₀ values were estimated to describe the influence of region, year and population. The regions accounted for a maximum of 26% of the variance and always less than the variance accounted for by individual populations. Sensitivity indices (SI₅₀) were calculated as the ratio between ED₅₀ of the test population and a reference population. There was considerable intraregional variability in SI₅₀ values and SI₅₀ values from a single region did not consistently differ from other regions. The large intraregional variability in herbicide sensitivity between populations, with no evidence of resistance, is of interest both for zonal evaluation of herbicides and resistance research. For practical weed management, we conclude that dose–response functions can be transferred between the study regions, for example for the common use in decision support systems with proper insurance for the control of less sensitive populations.     

Characterisation of Czech arable weed communities according to management and production area considering the prevalence of herbicide-resistant species

Herbicide resistance is a widespread issue that impacts management of conventional farms, but also has ramifications for the weed community assembly; it is therefore important to see how these species factor into the weed community assembly of farms throughout the countryside. This research analysed species richness and community diversity in 98 field relevés from 48 organic and 50 conventional farms evenly distributed between two major production regions of the Czech Republic and then evaluated the incidence of species which have been reported resistant in the Czech Republic and its neighbouring countries. Farms were selected independently of any acknowledged resistant species. Out of 164 species found in this survey, only eight species have had herbicide-resistant biotypes reported in the Czech Republic, while a total of 19 species had herbicide-resistant biotypes reported in neighbouring countries. Species with recorded resistance to PSII inhibitors in the Czech Republic tended to be found together and were mostly associated with the beet production region, characterised by low altitude: Amaranthus retroflexus, Chenopodium album, Echinochloa crus-galli and Solanum nigrum. Species with reported resistance to ALS and ACCase-inhibiting herbicides were not clearly associated with a particular region or farming type. Of the species which have had reported herbicide resistance in the neighbouring countries, several were found in conventional fields within the growing season and we recommend immediate screening for herbicide resistance in these species and more diligent action in management according to anti-resistance strategies: Bromus sterilis resistant to ACCase-inhibiting herbicides, A. retroflexus resistant to ALS-inhibiting herbicides or Avena fatua resistant to ACCase and ALS-inhibiting herbicides. This work is unique in that it is evaluating weed species diversity in organic and conventional farms and using the context to frame the prevalence of high-risk herbicide-resistant species; thereby putting the potential incidence of herbicide resistance into perspective at the landscape level.     

An investigation to enhance understanding of the stimulation of weed seedling emergence by soil disturbance

Enhanced understanding of soil disturbance effects on weed seedling recruitment will help guide improved management approaches. Field experiments were conducted at 16 site‐years at 10 research farms across Europe and North America to (i) quantify superficial soil disturbance (SSD) effects on Chenopodium album emergence and (ii) clarify adaptive emergence behaviour in frequently disturbed environments. Each site‐year contained factorial combinations of two seed populations (local and common, with the common population studied at all site‐years) and six SSD timings [0, 50, 100, 150, 200 day‐degrees (d°C, base temperature 3°C) after first emergence from undisturbed soil]. Analytical units in this study were emergence flushes. Flush magnitudes (maximum weekly emergence per count flush) and flush frequencies (flushes year^?1) were compared between disturbed and undisturbed seedbanks. One year after burial, SSD promoted seedling emergence relative to undisturbed seedbanks by increasing flush magnitude rather than increasing flush frequency. Two years after burial, SSD promoted emergence through increased flush magnitude and flush frequency. The promotional effects of SSD on emergence were strongest within 500 d°C following SSD; however, low levels of SSD‐induced emergence were detected as late as 3000 d°C following SSD. Accordingly, stale seedbed practices that eliminate weed seedlings should occur within 500 d°C of disturbance, because few seedlings emerge after this time. However, implementation of stale seedbed practices will probably cause slight increases in weed population densities throughout the year. Compared with the common population, local populations exhibited reduced variance in total emergence measured within sites and across SSD treatments, suggesting that C. album adaptation to local pedo‐climatic conditions involves increased consistency in SSD‐induced emergence.     

河北省冬小麦田杂草群落特征

为了明确河北省冬小麦田杂草的群落组成和结构,采用倒置"W"取样法对河北省7个地区146块冬小麦田的杂草进行了调查和物种多样性测度。结果显示,河北省冬小麦田有61种杂草,隶属于21科53属,播娘蒿、打碗花、荠菜、麦瓶草和麦家公是河北省冬小麦田的优势杂草。保定地区麦田杂草群落的物种丰富度最大;沧州地区麦田杂草群落的Shannon-Wiener指数和Pielou指数最大;廊坊地区麦田杂草群落的Gleason指数、Shannon-Wiener指数和Pielou指数最小,优势草种比较突出。经聚类分析和主成分分析,河北省冬小麦田杂草群落分为3组:石家庄、保定、邢台和廊坊的麦田杂草群落中耐旱杂草的相对多度较高;沧州和衡水的麦田杂草群落中耐盐杂草的相对多度较高;邯郸的麦田杂草群落中喜湿杂草的相对多度较高。说明土壤的盐度和湿度是影响河北省冬小麦田杂草群落组成的主要生态因子。     

Over-winter predation of Abutilon theophrasti and Setaria faberi seeds in arable land

To improve understanding of over-winter weed seed predation in arable fields, we used data from winter exclosure trials to determine the amount of predation and the influence of crop habitats on predation of Abutilon theophrasti and Setaria faberi seed in 2-year (maize/soyabean) and 4-year (maize/soyabean/small grain+lucerne/lucerne) crop rotation systems between 2005 and 2008. Crop habitat influenced seed predation, and had similar impacts on the two weed species. Mean A. theophrasti predation ranged from 31% in the 2-year soyabean habitat to 99% in the 4-year lucerne habitat. Mean S. faberi predation ranged from 31% in the 2-year soyabean habitat to 97% in the 4-year lucerne habitat. Results suggest that a combination or interaction of cover and substrate may have affected crop habitat preference by seed predators. Future research should further examine the influence of physical habitat on seed predation to determine characteristics of cropping systems that encourage predation, particularly during over-winter periods, so as to routinely incorporate seed predators into long-term weed management strategies.     

青海高原东北部耕地变化及驱动力分析

以青海高原东部农业区为研究区域,以1996-2005年土地利用现状调查与变更调查统计数据及统计年鉴提供的各类社会经济数据为依据,采用定性与定量相结合的方法,分析耕地变化过程与特点,探寻耕地变化驱动机制。研究结果表明,1996-2005年海东地区耕地面积总体呈下降趋势;耕地变化的主要驱动因素包括社会经济发展、政策调控驱动力两方面。其中,社会经济发展驱动力因子主要有人口、GDP、固定资产投资。政策调控驱动力因子主要有农业结构调整和生态退耕因素。     

不同轮作制度对定西地区农田杂草群落的影响

为探讨不同轮作制度对定西地区农田杂草群落的影响,采用倒置"W"九点取样法,调查了定西地区7种不同轮作制度下田间杂草的种类、数量、地上生物量等。在试验田发现11个科共15种杂草;从杂草发生密度、地上生物量上看,苦苣菜、藜是农田优势杂草,防除的目的杂草;不同轮作田的杂草群落由优势杂草组成;从不同轮作田杂草群落的物种多样性来看,马铃薯胡麻轮作马铃薯小麦轮作胡麻小麦轮作胡麻连作小麦胡麻轮作小麦马铃薯轮作胡麻马铃薯轮作;对不同轮作田杂草群落进行聚类,可分为四类。通过对不同轮作田中杂草的密度、地上生物量和综合优势度比的综合分析,可以看出胡麻连作、小麦胡麻轮作、马铃薯胡麻轮作、小麦马铃薯轮作中杂草的危害性较大。马铃薯小麦轮作、胡麻小麦轮作和胡麻马铃薯轮作对杂草有一定的控制作用。     

Development of arable weed seedbanks during the 6 years after the change from conventional to organic farming

All of the arable land of a farm in southern Germany was investigated during an 8-year period, starting 2 years before and ending 6 years after the change to organic farming. The first 3 years after the conversion, the total seed number in the soil increased from 4050 to 17 320 m⁻². From the fourth to the sixth year, it dropped back to 10 220 m⁻². The number of seeds increased particularly at sites with a low crop cover and a high density of weed plants at the soil surface. The increase predominantly occurring on the more fertile soils may have been caused by the rotation commencing with less competitive crops. Crops which increased the seedbank by 30–40% were winter cereals, sunflowers and lupins. Potatoes and sown fallow caused no significant change and grass–clover mixtures even reduced the number of seeds by 39%. Among 44 species occurring frequently enough for statistical analysis, 31 increased and only 3 decreased. The change of management particularly increased summer annual, perennial and dicotyledonous weeds. This can be attributed to both operations which are characteristic of organic farming (e.g. replacing herbicide applications by mechanical weed control) and to general modifications of the management practice which may also occur in non-organic farming systems (increasing the percentage of broad leaved and spring sown crops in crop rotation). The present study confirms investigations into the aboveground vegetation that indicate that arable organic farming favours plant species diversity and provides evidence that the conversion need not encourage the dominance of a few noxious weeds.