Cracks in bread crust cause longer crispness retention

Crispness is among the most important factors that the consumer uses to assess the quality of crispy bread. However, this quality attribute is rapidly lost after baking. It is known that crispness retention can be increased more than eight times by enhancing the water vapor permeability of the crust. Current methods to achieve this, i.e., puncturing the bread before baking, require an extra process step. We hypothesize that cracks that appear spontaneously on the crust surface after baking can also enhance water vapor permeability and therefore improve crispness retention. We were able to confirm this hypothesis by preparing composite breads containing the same crumb but different crusts, with crust recipes of varying starch/protein ratios. Crusts systems that were generally high in gelatinized starch content and poor in evenly distributed gluten were more prone to crack after the whole process of part-baking, freezing, and baking off. These cracks led to an increased water vapor permeability of the crust and an eight times longer instrumental crispness retention compared to standard bread. In this paper we also discuss possible causes for crack formation in the crust. We hypothesize that effective cracks are caused by thermal shock in materials with a low ability to dissipate energy.     

The role of the gluten network in the crispness of bread crust

Crispness features of baked products strongly determine consumer acceptability. For many baked products, such as bread, the outer crust gives the crispy sensation. Confocal scanning laser microscopy of the structure of bread crust revealed a continuous protein phase and a discontinuous non-gelatinized starch phase in the outer crust. In contrast, the crumb and inner crust, showed a gelatinized starch network associated with a protein network. The role of the protein phase of the outer crust in determining crispness has been studied. During storage, the crispness of bread crust alters as a result of changes in water content/activity resulting from moisture redistribution within the bread and between the bread and its environment. Water content was affected by the flour protein content and by selectively modifying the crust protein phase of a model bread with enzymes, as well as by storing breads at high and low relative humidity (80–40% RH). Protease modification resulted in a lower water content and activity in the crust during the first hours of storage. In contrast, modification by transglutaminase had the opposite effect and gave rise to higher water retention of the crust compared to the un-treated d bread. This shows that modification of the protein network can be used to regulate the water holding capacity of the crust. Sensory analysis confirmed the retention of crispness in protease modified bread crust after 2 h storage at 80% RH conditions, whereas both the untreated and transglutaminase-treated breads lost their crispness. A negative relationship between water activity/content and crispness was found. Modification of the starch phase of the crust by alpha-amylase produced a bread crust with a low water activity. However, a steep increase in the water activity was observed after 2 h storage at 80% RH with a concomitant loss of crispness. These results indicate an important role of the gluten network in determining crust properties.     

Fracture behaviour of bread crust: Effect of ingredient modification

The influence of the formulation on the crispness of bread crust was studied. Crispness is a relevant sensory attribute that depends on several factors particularly the plasticizer content (water), the mechanical properties of the solid matrix and the morphological architecture of the bread. Enzymes and additives were used to modify the bread formulation. This resulted in a modification of the bread characteristics. Crust and crumb had higher porosity than the control breads and a decreased water content of the bread crust was found. Instrumental crispness was evaluated by simultaneous analysis of the fracture behaviour and sound emission while breaking the crust. Addition of lipase, amylase, glucose oxidase and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) increased the number of force and sound events, indicative of higher crispness. The number of fracture and sound events correlated negatively with the water content and positively with the porosity of the crust. Both properties are affected by the use of enzymes/additives. Whether the observed positive effect of the enzymes and additives on the number of force and sound events is due to a direct effect on the flour components properties or interactions or to an indirect effect via structure-water migration properties is still open to discussion.     

Does crumb morphology affect water migration and crispness retention in crispy breads?

Crispness of bread is rapidly lost because of water migration inside the crumb towards the crust. How crumb properties determine this process independent of crust properties has not been examined before. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze and explain the influence of crumb morphology on the overall crispness retention. Crispness retention was determined by analyzing the acoustic emission of breads differing in either crust or crumb morphology. When crumb morphology is coarse with a lower number of large connections between the air cells, the effective diffusion coefficient is reduced. This effective diffusion coefficient of crumb, which equals approximately half the value of air, was estimated using X-ray micro-computer tomography images of crumb pieces. If the crumb has a lower effective diffusion coefficient, bread with similar crust properties has significantly longer crispness retention. Despite this, our data show that variations in properties of crust, which has 30 times higher permeability than crumb, have a larger impact on crispness retention than variations in properties of crumb.     

Effect of fibre diameter and cross-sectional shape on moisture transmission through fabrics

The current work incorporates an experimental study on the effect of fiber cross sectional shape and fibre diameter on moisture transmission properties of the fabric. Water vapour transmission of the fabrics was measured using the PERMETEST. In plane liquid flow through the fabric was measured using a gravimetric in-plane wicking tester and vertical movement of liquid along the fibres against gravity was also observed using a vertical wicking tester. With the change in shape factor and fibre diameter, it is seen that with increase in fibre specific surface area wicking rate through fabric increases, whereas water vapour permeability of the fabric reduces.     

Effects of fermentation and heat treatments on bound-ferulic acid content and total antioxidant capacity of bread crust-like systems made of different whole grain flours

In this study, bread crust-like systems were prepared by heating (5, 15 and 30 min at 200 °C) freeze-dried fermented doughs obtained using different cereal grains. The flours of whole wheat, refined wheat, whole einkorn, whole rye, whole oat and whole maize were used. The effects of fermentation and heating on bound ferulic acid concentration and total antioxidant capacity were determined. Besides, high molecular weight fractions, containing also melanoidins formed in bread crust-like systems during heating were analyzed for their bound ferulic acid content and total antioxidant capacity. Increasing heating time at 200 °C also increased the amounts of high molecular weight fractions in the bread crust-like systems for all cereals. The total antioxidant capacity of bread crust-like samples increased significantly with heating time (p < 0.05). However, the opposite was true for the high molecular weight fractions of bread crust-like samples. Mean bound ferulic acid concentrations of different cereal flours were found to range between 78.3 mg/kg (for refined wheat) and 667.7 mg/kg (for whole einkorn). Heating had no significant effect on bound ferulic acid contents of bread crust-like systems. For all cereals, the highest concentrations of bound ferulic acid were detected in the high molecular weight fractions of bread crust-like systems heated at 200 °C for 5 min. However, bound ferulic acid concentrations significantly decreased in high molecular weight fractions as heating time increased (p < 0.05).     

Influence of processing temperature on the water vapour transport properties of wheat gluten based agromaterials

The influence of processing conditions (thermoforming temperature) on water vapour transport properties (permeability, sorption and diffusion) of wheat gluten-based films was studied in relation to structural properties (cross-linking degree of the wheat gluten matrix). Increasing temperature from 80 °C to 120 °C led to a significant decrease in material swelling in high moisture environment and a WVP reduction mainly due to a decrease in diffusivity but without important effect on the moisture sorption isotherms. This was attributed to a higher cross-linking degree of protein network for film thermoformed at 120 °C, with a limited mobility and less possibilities of rearrangement in high moisture conditions.     

Exploring the potential of arabinoxylan as structuring agent in model systems for gluten-free yeast-leavened breads

Although the beneficial effect of arabinoxylan (AX) has been recognized for breadmaking, the available information about the effect of these compounds in gluten-free systems is scarce. In the present study, maize AX was tested in gluten-free breads using a yeast-leavened lean formulation based on rice flour and corn starch and two shaping models: pans and by dropping dough. The effect of the AX level (0%–5%) and hydration (70%–85%) were determined. Breads produced were analyzed in texture, morphology and crumb structure. The breads from the pan shaping model did not show significant differences in the crumb hardness. Moreover, the control breads presented better springiness, cohesiveness and resilience compared to AX breads. For the breads from the dropping dough model, those containing AX had lower hardness and chewiness and higher 2D area, height, cell density and surface area compared to control breads, especially at higher AX levels. Yet, AX caused a detrimental effect in springiness, cohesiveness and resilience. The hydration affected the hardness, 2D area, height, cell density and mean cell area in breads containing AX, finding better results in breads with 80% water absorption. This research demonstrated that even when AX are capable to improve the hardness and crumb structure of gluten-free breads, they could cause a detrimental effect in other textural characteristics.     

PEG6000胁迫对大麦幼苗叶片表皮蜡质组分及其透性的影响

为了探究干旱胁迫条件下大麦幼苗叶片表皮蜡质组分和含量与品种保水能力的关系,采用PEG6000模拟干旱胁迫,研究干旱胁迫对大麦幼苗叶片表皮蜡质组分、含量及叶片表皮透性的影响。结果发现,胁迫6d后,大麦幼苗叶片的表皮蜡质总量和各组分含量均呈极显著增加。气相色谱-质谱联用分析表明,大麦幼苗叶片表皮蜡质的主要组分为醇类、酸类、醛类、酮类、烷烃类、酚类、酯类及一些未知物质,其中含量较多的组分为醇类和酸类,其次为醛类,且这三种蜡质组成成分的增加量也相对较多,说明在大麦幼苗叶片蜡质组分中,醇类、酸类和醛类物质的合成是大麦幼苗叶片表皮蜡质对干旱胁迫响应的关键。表皮蜡质的合成受植物体内水分状况的调控,尤其是蜡质组分中的醛类、酮类、醇类和酯类物质的合成受胁迫影响较大,是构成表皮蜡质应激反应的主要成分。蜡质含量高的品种的失水率相对较低,在逆境胁迫下可以保持相对较高的含水量,但除品种垦啤6号外,其他品种的叶绿素浸出率均增加,这可能是由不完整的表皮或蜡质组分中大量的醇类物质造成的。     

Effect of glutathione on wheat dough properties and bread quality

Reduced glutathione (GSH), released from lysed yeast cells, is well-known for weakening dough structure. However, its influence on bread texture and staling has not yet been completely elucidated. Herein, this study aims at assessing the effects of GSH on dough properties and bread quality, especially bread staling, using Rheofermentometer analysis, texture profile analysis (TPA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR). The results revealed that GSH substantially decreased the dough height and gas-retention capacity during fermentation. The weakened dough structure was attributed to GSH-induced disulfide bond cleavage in gluten proteins and the depolymerization of glutenin polymers. The addition of 0.005%–0.01% GSH resulted in acceptable bread quality. However, bread supplemented with 0.015%–0.03% of GSH exhibited a coarser and more open crumb microstructure, as well as high level of hardness and low resilience during aging. GSH promoted crumb water loss and drove the water shift from the immobilized to the bound state. The DSC and XRD analyses further confirmed that GSH promoted starch retrogradation and recrystallization. These results suggest that apart from the gluten structure, GSH also altered gluten−starch interactions and water redistribution, ultimately decreasing bread quality and accelerating bread staling.     

Simulating the formation of bread crust in a DMTA rheometer

Water evaporates very fast from the surface layers of dough, enhanced by high heating rates at the beginning of baking. The rheological properties of the surface layers play an important role during the baking process, especially in local and overall expansion and water loss. The aim of this study was to determine the rheological properties of bread dough in the heat-moisture dynamics of the baking process, especially in surface drying and delayed drying conditions. The DMTA method was used in tensile mode in order to expose the samples to fast dehydration to simulate real bread crust. The degree of starch gelatinization was demonstrated by the disappearance of the “Maltese cross” (polarized light microscopy). Temperature and water content were monitored during baking. The modulus evolution depended on both the heat and moisture evolution (i.e. immediate or delayed in the present study). In contrast to reports in the literature, starch gelatinization was observed even under drying conditions. Nevertheless, comparison between samples under drying and under delayed drying conditions suggested that water content prevailed in the rheological changes.     

基于低场核磁共振技术的玉米子粒发育过程中水分变化规律

基于低场核磁共振(low-field nuclear magnetic resonance,LF-NMR)技术观测子粒发育过程的水分迁移动态,分析不同种质玉米子粒水分变化规律。结果表明,在子粒发育初期,郑单958与先玉335的子粒含水率存在显著差异,且一直伴随整个发育时期。在整个发育期,自由水和半结合水含量逐渐降低,结合水含量逐渐升高,整体水分向结合水方向迁移。DAP36-DAP43是两品种水分相态差异最大的生育期;在成熟期,半结合水是两品种间唯一有差异的水分相态。各指标相关性分析结果显示,淀粉与结合水呈显著正相关,与自由水、半结合水呈显著负相关。综上,LF-NMR可以快速且无损检测玉米子粒发育过程的水分变化。在玉米子粒发育过程中,子粒含水率不断降低的同时伴随着水分向自由度降低方向转化,淀粉积累可能是促使这一过程的因素之一,半结合水可能是影响成熟后期两个品种脱水差异的水分相态。     

Structural role of fibre addition to increase knowledge of non-gluten bread

Dietary fibres can play a significant role in GF bread development. Besides their well documented health benefits, dietary fibres can improve the texture, sensory characteristics and shelf life of baked products, due to their water binding capacity, gel forming ability, fat mimetic, textural and thickening effects. Dietary fibres from different sources are discussed in this paper and their role in GF products' making is analysed. The sources of fibres vary: flours, fruit and vegetable processing by-products, isolated ingredients, seeds or mixtures of all of these can be used. Fibres improve the structure and result in dense crumb porosity. Tasty products with soft crumb can be produced, and there are many perspectives in further products development.     

盐胁迫对燕麦种子萌发、幼苗生长及叶片质膜透性的影响

为给燕麦抗盐育种和栽培提供理论依据,用不同梯度的NaCl和Na2SO4复盐溶液胁迫处理7个燕麦品种,研究了盐胁迫对燕麦种子萌发、幼苗生长和叶片质膜透性的影响.结果表明,盐胁迫对燕麦种子萌发和幼苗的生长有抑制效应,而且随着盐浓度的增加,相对发芽率、发芽指教、简易活力指教、幼苗根长和株高逐渐降低,叶片质膜透性逐渐增加.主成分分析表明,相对发芽率、发芽指数、简易活力指数是主要的耐盐性鉴定指标.在7个燕麦品种中,白燕2号和苏维埃339耐盐性强.大燕麦和内农大莜1号中度耐盐,而Sibsiae、加2和原294耐盐性较差,属不耐盐类型.     

Modification of gluten by methionine binding to prepare wheat bread with reduced reactivity to serum IgA of celiac disease patients

Celiac disease (CD) is caused by ingestion of wheat gluten proteins, due to immune response to proline- and glutamine-rich sequences. In this study, for reduction of the immune recognition, gluten proteins were enzymatically modified by binding methionine to the amino lateral groups of glutamine residues. Additionally, a bread-making process with modified gluten was assayed. The methionine binding was monitored by measuring the alpha-amino group disappearance and reduction of celiac IgA immunoreactivity. The best methionine binding was after 60 min reaction at pH 10, inducing a reduced to null IgA immunoreactivity to prolamins extracted from modified gluten. The bread prepared with modified gluten had lower specific volume (3.86 cm³/g) than the control wheat bread (4.52 cm³/g) but higher than those reported for gluten-free loaves. The preserved functionality of gluten proteins will make it feasible to apply this kind of modification in different wheat-based foodstuffs like the assayed bread in this study.     

洪涝对杂交水稻叶片细胞透性及其产量影响的量化研究

通过盆栽试验,采用４因素５水平的正交设计,研究了不同生育时期（ｘ１）、不同淹水深度（ｘ２）、不同淹水天数（ｘ３）和不同泥沙含量（ｘ４）的淹水对杂交稻组合威优４６的叶片细胞电解质伤害性外漏率（ｙ１）及其相对产量（ｙ２）的影响。经多元正交多项式的方差分析,ｘ２,ｘ３,ｘ２１,ｘ２４,ｘ１ｘ２,ｘ１ｘ３,ｘ１ｘ４,ｘ２ｘ３,ｘ２ｘ４,ｘ３ｘ４与ｙ１之间具有显著的相关性,可建立良好的回归关系式;经线性回归分析,ｙ１与ｙ２呈极显著的负相关,说明叶片细胞电解质伤害性外漏率的升高是造成减产的重要原因之一。     

Combining local pressure and temperature measurements during bread baking: insights into crust properties and alveolar structure of crumb

Improvements in both the miniaturisation and heat compensation of pressure transducers made it possible to measure pressures as low as 5 kPa inside bread dough during baking (ΔT = 80 °C). Additional calibration was found to be necessary to decrease it below 0.18 kPa according to the variations in temperature encountered during baking. Two probes with both a thermocouple and a miniature pressure transducer were used to reveal pressure gradients inside bread dough during baking and post-cooling. During baking, increase in pressure (up to 1.1 kPa) was mainly attributed to the mechanical restrictions exerted on the dough by the stiffened surface layers. Pressure build-up due to the stiffening of bubble walls could not be detected. Various effects of the rupture in the bubble walls are reported. Sudden falls in pressure observed up to 70 °C were attributed to the bubble coalescence phenomenon. Evidence of an open porous structure was provided by the balance in pressure through the dough before the end of baking and the almost simultaneous lowering of pressure (−0.15 kPa) throughout the crumb during cooling. The slight lowering of pressure during post-cooling was also evidence of lower permeability of the crust compared to the crumb.     

甲醛对吊兰等植物细胞质膜相对透性和光合特性的影响

采用方差分析比较5种甲醛浓度[分别为Ⅰ (CK)、Ⅱ、Ⅲ、Ⅳ、Ⅴ]对虎尾兰、吊兰、袖珍椰子、白鹤芋、常春藤细胞质膜相对透性和光合特性的影响.结果显示,质膜透性随着甲醛浓度增加而提高,Ⅱ处理对5种植物质膜相对透性影响不显著,Ⅲ处理对吊兰质膜相对透性影响不显著而对其他4种植物质膜相对透性影响极显著,Ⅳ、Ⅴ处理对5种植物质膜相对透性影响极显著;Ⅱ处理提高植物的净光合速率(Pn)、除常春藤外其他4种植物的蒸腾速率(Tr)、气孔导度(Gs)和胞间CO2浓度(Ci),降低气孔限制值(Ls),植株生长良好,无受毒害症状;Ⅲ处理提高Ci,提高除了常春藤外其他4种植物的Pn、Tr和Gs,降低Ls,降低虎尾兰、吊兰、袖珍椰子的水分利用效率(WuE),虎尾兰、袖珍椰子、白鹤芋、常春藤植株长势一般,有轻微的受毒害症状,吊兰长势良好,无受毒害症状;Ⅳ、Ⅴ处理导致Pn下降,造成袖珍椰子、白鹤芋、常春藤的Tr和白鹤芋、常春藤的Gs下降.Ⅴ处理还引起虎尾兰、吊兰、白鹤芋的Ci下降和Ls提高,植株长势较差,有明显的受毒害症状.结果表明,虎尾兰、吊兰、袖珍椰子、白鹤芋、常春藤对甲醛的耐受力即阈值分别为1.335～2.367、2.370～5.150、1.374～2.523、1.326～2.287、1.354～2.482 mg/m3.     

Effect of the addition of bran fractions on bread properties

High fibre breads were produced adding durum wheat bran fractions of different composition and particle size. Fresh products were characterized for texture, crumb grain, volume, colour, water status (water activity, moisture content, frozen water content, ¹H molecular mobility).     

Influence of Lipid A Acylation Pattern on Membrane Permeability and Innate Immune Stimulation

Lipid A, the hydrophobic anchor of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), is an essential component in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. It can stimulate the innate immune system via Toll-like receptor 4/myeloid differentiation factor 2 (TLR4/MD2), leading to the release of inflammatory cytokines. In this study, six Escherichia coli strains which can produce lipid A with different acylation patterns were constructed; the influence of lipid A acylation pattern on the membrane permeability and innate immune stimulation has been systematically investigated. The lipid A species were isolated and identified by matrix assisted laser ionization desorption-time of flight/tandem mass spectrometry. N-Phenyl naphthylamine uptake assay and antibiotic susceptibility test showed that membrane permeability of these strains were different. The lower the number of acyl chains in lipid A, the stronger the membrane permeability. LPS purified from these strains were used to stimulate human or mouse macrophage cells, and different levels of cytokines were induced. Compared with wild type hexa-acylated LPS, penta-acylated, tetra-acylated and tri-acylated LPS induced lower levels of cytokines. These results suggest that the lipid A acylation pattern influences both the bacterial membrane permeability and innate immune stimulation. The results would be useful for redesigning the bacterial membrane structure and for developing lipid A vaccine adjuvant.