Indigenous market-oriented agroforestry: dissecting local diversity in western Amazonia

This paper reports on a study of local diversity and variation in indigenous agroforestry practices among Amazonian peasants in a traditional community near Iquitos, Peru. Data were gathered through in-depth interviews with agroforestry-reliant households n = 36) on farming practices, demographic characteristics, income-expenditures and household wealth. Visits to crop fields and forest fallows n = 329) allowed the reconstruction of extensive cropping histories. More in-depth assessments of crop occurrence, density and diversity were conducted on 83 fields. Our results indicate considerable variation in field characteristics, agroforestry-cycles, and household agroforestry portfolios. Agroforestry practice is found to be strongly related to access to land within the community: households holding more land use both potentially more sustainable and more lucrative swidden-fallow agroforestry systems. Our results question the view of indigenous agroforestry systems as intrinsically ‘stable, equitable, and sustainable’, and underscore the importance of studying local variation in indigenous agroforestry practices. Promising avenues are discussed for future research on the factors related to the successful adoption of sustainable agroforestry systems. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Woody Plants Diversity and Possession,and Their Future Prospects in Small-Scale Tree and Shrub Growing in Agricultural Landscapes in Central Highlands of Ethiopia

Woody plants diversity and possession in small-scale tree and shrub growing practices among farmers of central highland Ethiopia were assessed by using a complete census of the trees and shrubs existing on farmers’ lands. The future prospects of diversity and possession of woody plants in the agricultural landscapes were also investigated by using the farmers’ species preferences and seedling demands as indicators. Comparisons were made across wealth classes, proximity clusters to a nearby state forest and land uses. It was found that 27 tree and 21 shrub species exist on lands of the studied households. With increasing wealth status of the households, the tree and shrub species richnesses increased. Tree and shrub species richnesses were highest in boundary plantings and homesteads respectively. Small-scale woodlots had the highest number of tree stems while homesteads contained the highest number of shrub stems. The number of tree stems a household possesses is strongly influenced by distance from the state forest, family size, educational level of the household head and number of iron-roofed houses owned. And, the shrub stems possession is significantly influenced by wealth status, distance from the state forest, land holding size, family size, livestock holding, age of wife and possession of off-farm income sources. The species preference analysis and seedling demand computations indicated that the woody species diversity is less likely to change in the future because there is no difference between the currently existing species and the preferred ones. Nonetheless, the number of tree and shrub stems on the farmers’ holdings could increase if the seedling demands of the preferred woody species are met.     

Smallholder Teak and Agrarian Change in Northern Laos

Smallholder teak (Tectona grandis) plantations have become increasingly prominent in the landscape of Luang Prabang Province, Lao PDR. While the global market for teak-wood is attractive, investment has been driven by a range of factors, including changes to land legislation, land-use planning, taxation incentives, and government and non-government programs and promotions. The establishment of teak stands provides a labour-saving land use for households, potentially freeing up household resources for other farm and non-farm opportunities. However, the degree to which households can participate in the industry varies within and between villages. This paper reviews some of the underlying incentives for the expansion of teak plantations, examines the livelihood activities of both teak and non-teak producers in five case study villages in Luang Prabang, and explores the differential outcomes emerging from the expansion of smallholder teak production. The survey revealed that teak planting has been more extensive among households with a longer history of settlement, where the household head is older and better educated, where household members have off-farm sources of income, and where the household has access to paddy land and is thus more likely to be self-sufficient in rice. Households that depend on shifting cultivation for their livelihoods, without access to alternative productive land or income sources, will continue to have difficulty planting teak or holding on to the land they do manage to plant. The paper concludes that the establishment and improvement of teak plantations, like other apparently technical interventions aimed at providing a ‘pathway out of poverty’, need to be seen in the context of wider processes of agrarian change and differentiation to appreciate the resultant impacts on livelihood trajectories.     

From farm forestry to farm and forestry in south-western France as a result of changes in a ‘house-centred’ social structure

The importance of the ecological functions of farm forests in France calls for a better understanding of the social systems influencing forest management. The traditional ‘house-centred system’ involved a sharing of activities in farm forestry between fathers and their sons. Retired farmers were traditionally managers of the forests while their sons dealt with farming activities. The evolution of this relationship since World War 2 has been investigated with an ethnologic approach in two villages in south-western France where the traditional ‘house-centred system’ constrains the social rules. This system has led to a lifetime status for fathers as head of the farm and of the household. Before WW2, sons played a secondary role in relation to their fathers who took strategic decisions. After WW2, sons became more involved in the forest work and decisions which led to a more frequent use of agricultural methods in forests. This created differences of opinion between fathers and sons, with the fathers considering their sons’ management too intensive. The social consequence was that the fathers felt that their role as forest managers and as head of the farm was reduced. In future, farm forest management might become more dependent on agricultural activities, with the traditional social systems losing importance.     

A preliminary classification of fruit-based agroforestry in a highland area of northern Thailand

Tree fruit crops are an increasingly important component of highland cropping systems in northern Thailand. A survey was conducted in three highland hill tribe villages in an upland watershed in Mae Hong Son Province to examine and classify the fruit-based cropping activities used by villagers. Members of ten households in each village were interviewed to establish activities and crop histories for each plot of land held by the household. From the sample of 85 ‘gardens‘ (plots with ten or more fruit trees), a field-level classification structure was developed reflecting function of trees, use and nature of herbaceous intercrops, and pattern of components. Through the classification process, four groups and 11 subsystems of highland tree fruit-based agroforestry were identified. The single most abundant subsystem was ‘mixed home gardens‘. A strong commercial element was also obvious. The survey indicates a very diverse ‘customized’ use of the fruit cropping system. The classification has potential for use in more extensive surveys of the nature of fruit cropping activities in the highlands and as a tool for further analysis in the study area. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Traditional agroforestry systems and biodiversity conservation in Benin (West Africa)

In the past, the conservation of biodiversity has been mostly understood in terms of the management of protected areas and natural forests, ignoring the possible role of farm areas and the ways through which rural communities have promoted biodiversity in their subsistence agricultural production systems. The present study focused on the floristic diversity within traditional agroforestry parkland systems around the Pendjari Biosphere Reserve in Benin and showed the diversity of tree species in the area as well as socio-economic factors which affect the practice of this farming system. We used questionnaires and interviewed a total of 118 households to collect data. Respondents were interviewed on their farms and during the interview; we inventoried the number of tree on the farm and determined the farm size. Twenty-one tree species belonging to 14 botanical families were recorded during the surveys and the average stand density of the woody component of farmlands was 7.97 ± 5.43 stems/ha. A number of both native and exotic tree species occurred in the parkland agroforestry systems with dominance of indigenous tree species. Species richness varied with the size of household where households with small land holding conserve more tree species in their field than households with large land holdings. 64% of households surveyed were making deliberate efforts to plant tree species on their farmlands. The most important reasons which determined household ambitions to conserve woody species on farmland were tree products contribution to food and medicine. Results also showed that respondents who noticed that trees were decreasing in the wild conserve more tree species on their farmlands. This research highlights the role of traditional agroforestry practices to support tree species richness and provides evidence of the farms’ role as biodiversity reservoirs.     

Understanding forest transition in the Philippines: main farm-level factors influencing smallholder’s capacity and intention to plant native timber trees

The ‘when, where and how’ of decisions by smallholder upland farmers to plant trees as part of their use of natural, human and capital resources needs to be understood if policy support is to result in actual recovery of tree cover as part of a ‘forest transition’ trajectory. In large parts of the Philippines the turning point may be close. Data on resource access and tree planting decisions were gathered from a household survey, with a total of 148 respondents in four rural communities in Leyte Province in Central Philippines. Data were analysed using logistic regression analysis. Household-level results reveal that the outcomes of the decision-making processes primarily depend on the availability of land and access to remaining forest resources rather than socio-cultural or economic factors. The total area of land and number of parcels managed by the household plus security of land tenure through ownership was found to have a statistically significant effect on farmers’ decision to plant native timber trees. Access to surrounding natural forest is negatively associated with farmer tree planting.     

Private native forestry in new landscapes: challenges and opportunities in New South Wales

Understanding the changes occurring within the forestry sector is complicated by socio-economic and demographic changes within rural communities - sometimes in areas where commercial forestry has a long tradition. These changes in some rural communities, particularly coastal New South Wales, appear significant for forestry because land ownership and management are increasingly disconnected from the traditional agricultural land use. There is an increasing population of landowners in ‘lifestyle’ landscapes who do not appear primarily driven by maximising the profitability of farming. The shift from ‘production’ to ‘lifestyle’ landscapes also reflects a transition in community expectations for forestry - a profound change that is likely to require quite different approaches to management. Landholders may be more likely to be interested in forestry with multiple values, including both timber products and environmental services. Furthermore, well-managed native forests that are integrated into individual properties and wider landscapes, may increase the market value of the property, representing a prudent business investment. This paper presents a method for analysing the relationship between rural land values and the estimated agricultural value of typical farms in a number of localities in New South Wales, as a means of interpreting the underlying social values of landholders. It is argued that such analysis can be helpful in identifying changes in community values as a signal that approaches to private native forestry may also need to change to accommodate the aspirations of ‘lifestyle’ landholders, who may value the aesthetics of native forests more highly than timber production.     

Genetic variation and genotype-environment interactions in short rotation <Emphasis Type="Italic">Populus</Emphasis> plantations in southern Europe

Growth and production in the first year, as additional selection criteria, were assessed for nine poplar clones to be used as short rotation woody crops (SRWC) in the production of biomass for energy purposes. In order to identify the most promising clones in terms of growth and yield and also to assess their stability, trials were established at different locations in Spain. The majority of these clones, which form part of the European list of base materials, have frequently been used in plantations aimed at timber production but not for biomass in Mediterranean conditions. Others, such as those selected in Italy specifically for biomass production (currently provisionally admitted), are being tested for the first time under different soil and climatic conditions in Southwest Europe. The early selection of clones for rapid juvenile growth provides a valuable additional input to the clonal selection process, especially where very short rotations are desired (no more than 3 years). In any case, determining clonal stability in terms of growth is of great use not only when deciding on the clones to be used in plantations but also when developing breeding programs. ANOVA and Genotype plus Genotype × Environment (GGE) biplot analyses were used to analyse the growth and stability of the clones, which were then ranked according to mean performance and stability. Differences were detected between clones as well as between the different environments tested. The biplot analysis allowed different groups of clones to be identified according to their performance and degree of interaction displayed, thus providing useful information for the selection process. The production of aboveground biomass in the first vegetative period ranged from 1.7 to 8.0 Mg DM ha⁻¹ at the different sites. ‘Monviso’, ‘Guardi’, ‘AF2’ and ‘2000 verde’ were the most productive clones whereas ‘Unal’, ‘Pegaso’ and ‘USA 49-177’ were the least productive. The stability analysis identified ‘AF2’, ‘Guardi’, ‘I-214’ and ‘MC’ as more stable clones while ‘Monviso’, ‘2000 verde’, ‘Unal’, ‘Pegaso’ and ‘USA 49-177’ were found to be specifically adapted to certain environments. This implies that where information on site conditions is not available, the ‘AF2’ and ‘Guardi’ clones offer greater assurance of successful establishment and higher initial growth. The growth of ‘Monviso’ ‘2000 verde’ ‘Unal’ ‘Pegaso’ and ‘USA 49-177’ clones is highly dependent on site conditions during the establishment phase. Similarly, the SH (Shore Henares river) and LT (La Tallada) sites were identified as the most highly discriminative environments for the set of clones while CS (Cubo de la Solana) and AR (Atarfe) were identified as those where performance levels were average.     

Effects of salt-alkali stress on active oxygen metabolism in roots of Spiraea × bumalda ’Gold Mound’ and Spiraea × bumalda ’Gold Flame’

Under artificially-simulated complex salt-alkali stress, the levels of active oxygen metabolism in roots were studied using three-year-old cutting seedlings of Spiraea × bumalda ’Gold Mound’ and Spiraea × bumalda ’Gold Flame’. The present study aimed at exploring the antioxidant capacity in roots of spiraeas and revealing their adaptability to salt-alkali stress. Results indicate that the oxygen free radicals contents, electrolyte leakage rates and MDA contents in roots of Spiraea × bumalda ’Gold Mound’ and Spiraea × bumalda ’Gold Flame’ show an increasing tendency with the increases of the salinity and pH value, whereas the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT) all increased firstly and then decreased. With the increase in intensity of salt-alkali stress, the CAT activity in roots of Spiraea × bumalda ’Gold Flame’ is higher and the increasing extents in the oxygen free radicals contents, electrolyte leakage rates as well as MDA contents are lower compared with Spiraea × bumalda ’Gold Mound’, indicating that Spiraea × bumalda ’Gold Flame’ has a stronger antioxidant capacity.     

Protective enzyme activity and physiological properties of four mulberry varieties affected by drought stress in the Panxi Region of Sichuan Province, China

In order to identify the effects of drought stress on protective enzyme activity and physiological properties, four mulberry varieties, i.e.,‘Nanye-1’, ‘Yunsang-1’, ‘Xinyizhilai’ and ‘Husang-32’ in the Panxi Region of Sichuan Province, China, were selected. The activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT) in four mulberry varieties was determined. Soluble protein, soluble sugar, proline, net photosynthetic rate and transpiration rate of mulberry leaves were analyzed. The resul...     

A general classification of agroforestry practice

Present classification schemes confuse agroforestry practices, where trees are intimately associated with agricultural components at a field scale, with the whole farm and forest systems of which they form a part. In fact, it is common for farming systems to involve the integration of several reasonably discrete agroforestry practices, on different types of land. The purpose of a general classification is to identify different types of agroforestry and to group those that are similar, thereby facilitating communication and the organized storage of information. A new scheme is proposed that uses the ‘practice’ rather than the ‘system’ as the unit of classification. This allows an efficient grouping of practices that have a similar underlying ecology and prospects for management. A two stage definition of agroforestry is proposed that distinguishes an interdisciplinary approach to land use from a set of integrated land use practices. Four levels of organization are recognized through analysis of the role of trees in agricultural landscapes: the land use system, categories of land use within systems, discrete groups of components (trees, crops, animals) managed together, and functionally connected groups of such discrete practices in time and space. Precedents for this form of analysis are found in the literature and it conforms with generally accepted methods of systems analysis. Classification of major types of agroforestry practice proceeds primarily according to the components involved and the predominant usage of land. A secondary scheme further classifies these in terms of the arrangement, density and diversity of the tree components involved. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Jatropha adoption: a statistical observational study of factors influencing Malian farmers’ decision to grow Jatropha

An accurate understanding of the factors that influence farmers’ adoption of a crop is critical for effective policy promotion and technical support. Agroforestry crop adoption is a complex topic involving many factors not often addressed by tradition crop adoption models. This complexity, when applied to Jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.), an often widely promoted yet poorly understood biofuel feedstock crop, requires a detailed analysis across diverse topics. Such an analysis was carried out through applying rigorous statistical tools to the data acquired from an interview-based household survey among Malian farmers and was combined with relevant geospatial datasets. The results showed that though farmers’ adoption is based on a wide variety of factors from household preferences, resource endowments, bio-physical factors, and market incentives, factors related to risk and uncertainty appear to provide the strongest correlation. Specifically, the number of visits that an agriculture extension agent makes with a farmer was found to be the most significant factor influencing adoption.     

Variation analysis of seed and seedling traits of cross combination progenies in Populus

Twenty-five species and hybrids in Populus were used as parents, and 26 cross combinations, including more than 5 000 seedlings, were obtained by artificial cross breeding. The length of infructescence, number of seeds per infructescence, thousand-seed weight, germination rate of seeds among these cross combinations were tested. The results indicated that the cross combinational effects were significant for these traits, and demonstrated that the length of infructescence, thousand-seed weight were positively affected by female parent. In addition, seedling height, diameter above ground, diameter at breast height (DBH) of 17 cross combination progenies were investigated. The analysis of mean and standard deviation of these three traits showed that seedling height, diameter above ground, DBH had extensive variation among combinations and individuals within combination. Variance analysis and estimate of heritability indicated that the three traits had wide variation and were controlled by heredity. It was feasible to select superior cross combinations and seedlings. Further more, the result of multiple comparison showed that P. deltoides ‘Lux’ × P. deltoides ‘D324’, P. ussuriensis cl. ‘U4’ × P. deltoides ‘T66’, P. ussuriensis cl. ‘U4’ × P. deltoides ‘T26’, P. deltoides ‘Lux’ × P. ussuriensis cl. ‘U3’, (P. tomentosa × P. bolleana) × (P. alba × P. glandulosa), (P. alba × P. tomentosa) × (P. alba × P. glandulosa), and (P. alba × P. glandulosa ‘No. 2’) × P. tomentosa ‘Lumao 50’ were superior cross combinations with higher growth rate. Finally, 123 elite seedlings were selected for further test. [Supported by the Doctoral Foundation of Ministry of Education (Grant No. 200220022004) and the National “863” Project (Grant No. 2002AA241071)]     

Attitudes of small-scale forest owners to their properties in an ageing society: Findings of survey in Yamaguchi prefecture, Japan

Populations of most developed countries have been ageing, and the populations of Japanese mountain villages are estimated to have reached into a super-ageing society. In particular, because forestry is unprofitable and due to the economic recession in Japan, many small-scale forest owners face the problems of ageing. For policy-makers, it is important to assess the socioeconomic impacts of forest owners’ ageing in order to ensure the sustainable management of forests. A survey was conducted of forest owners in Yamaguchi Prefecture, which is famous for overall depopulation and ageing of the rural population. It was found that 83% of 687 plantation forest owners who responded in the survey were 60 years or older and 76% did not have forestry income over the past three years, but 81% had kept up ownership of their forest as the traditional family property. In terms of forest management intentions, the respondents were found to consist of four types, namely ‘family management’, ‘commissioned management’, ‘de-accession’ and ‘possession without proper management’. Differences in evaluations of hypothetical policies were found among the four types.     

Peasant charcoal production in the Peruvian Amazon: rainforest use and economic reliance

Recent studies point to the promise of rain forest extraction for more sustainable rural development in Amazonia but often overlook important differences within traditional communities in terms of relative economic reliance upon specific forest resources. This paper reports on a study of charcoal production among forest peasants in an Amazonian river community, near Iquitos, Peru. In-depth household interviews (n=36) provided information on household economic activity, demographic composition, and access to land, labor and capital as well as on the nature, role and economic importance of charcoal in the household economy. Our results indicate that peasant charcoal production — often cast as a rapacious, wasteful use of the forest — can provide significant cash income for forest peoples and high returns per hectare, particularly when integrated into swidden-fallow agroforestry systems, without causing notable forest destruction. Low returns to labor, however, limit prospects for peasants to prosper by charcoal production. Variations in household output of charcoal are explained by differential access to intra- and extra-household labor. Among those households most reliant upon charcoal, two subgroups are found — ‘charcoal-dependent’ households and ‘charcoal-specialized’ households — both of which rely on charcoal production, but for different reasons and with distinct outcomes. These two sub-groups are divided by differences in non-market mediated access to local land and labor. Clearly, to be successful, initiatives aimed at promoting rain forest conservation and management among ‘resource-reliant’ households must be informed by careful attention to the underlying conditions that give rise to differential rain forest reliance.     

Farm Forestry Prospects Among Some Local Communities in Rachuonyo District,Kenya

Deforestation and degradation of productive lands are serious threats to the sustainability of forestry/agricultural practices in Kenya. In the last two decades farm forestry (FF) has been promoted through pilot projects among local communities as an example of sustainable land use. However adoption of FF is limited outside the project locations because FF improvement measures focused mainly on biological (e.g. succession, biodiversity and traditional industrial timber production) and technical concerns (e.g. material input delivery such as providing free tree seedlings for field planting) rather than local values, and interests and the constraints facing farmers. This study examined the local farm priorities and constraints and the prospects for the wider implementation of farm-level tree planting in four communities in Rachuonyo District. Using interviews with 597 randomly selected household heads, the study assessed farmer’s production assets and activities, land tenure, priority tree species and the constraints to growing trees on farms. Results show that farm labour is represented by a young population, 56.3% under the age of forty. They are mainly engaged in small-scale mixed cropping integrated with multipurpose trees and some livestock. Tree products contribute about 32% to household cash income, more than any other source (agricultural products, labour sales, etc). Females were more often household heads and had considerable influence over productive activities, making them an important target group in FF development. Farmers preferred exotic tree species due to their ability to provide short-term cash income, fuel and shade. Farmers’ concerns included population pressure on limited farmlands and the problem of credit for agricultural inputs. Given the feeling of secured tenure arrangement and influence of tree products on the household economy, farmers are likely to invest more in efficient land uses such as FF if consideration is given to local priorities.     

Agroforestry performance on small farms in Amazonia: Findings from the Rondonia Agroforestry Pilot Project

Experiences from not only ‘success stories’ but also ‘failed’ agroforestry projects provide potentially useful lessons for future agroforestry-project designers. Experimental one-hectare agroforestry plots were established on 50 small-scale farms in the western Brazilian Amazon State of Rondonia from 1993 to 1995. Drawing from a menu of 25 different species (10 tropical hardwoods and softwoods and 15 fruits and palms), this species trial shows encouraging survival and growth performance for most species under wide ranging plot management regimes. Tropical hardwood survival rates (after 18 months) ranged from 65% for Cerejeira (Torresea acreana) to 88% for mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla). Survival rates for commercial fruit and palm species were even higher. A comparison of attributes of two sub-groups (successful and unsuccessful planters) suggests that previous experience with perennial monocultural cropping, greater social participation, land use history, and soil chemistry are positively associated with successful agroforestry species performance, while no significant differences exist between successful and unsuccessful planters in household size, area deforested, area in pasture, and land tenure security. A closer analysis of ‘failed’ agroforestry plots indicates the primary importance of social factors originating at the household-level (e.g. inadequate plot maintenance, improper planting techniques, illness, etc.). Twelve different causes of plot failure were cited, falling into three classes. Of the total number of reasons given for plot failure, household level factors represented 54% of all causes cited. Project design and implementation factors (inappropriate plot design, defective planting material, etc.) were cited 25% of the times and environmental factors (soil fertility constraints and pasture grass invasion) were cited 21% of the times. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Impact of agroforestry intervention on farm income under the subsistence farming system of the middle hills, Nepal

Practices that minimize the rate of soil degradation, increase crop yields and raise farm income are key to sustaining agricultural productivity in the hills of Nepal. The use of farmland is undergoing rapid changes in response to increasing population pressure, deforestation and subsistence needs. Against this background, this study examined the impact of an agroforestry intervention project on farm income based on a sample of subsistence farm households in Dhadhing district. The project was implemented by Nepal Agroforestry Foundation in 1993/94 to increase fodder production through the promotion of agroforestry. A total of 223 households (82 with project and 141 without project) were interviewed during May–October 1998 to collect information on production and agroforestrys' impact on farm income. The benefit-cost analysis showed that the agricultural system including agroforestry was more profitable than the conventional one. The results also showed that the introduction of mulberry trees for sericulture could further enhance the profitability of an agroforestry-based system. Thus, agroforestry has great potential for enhancing food production and farmers' economic conditions in a sustainable manner through its positive contributions to household income.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Ground floor vegetation assessment within the intensive (Level II) monitoring of forest ecosystems in Germany: chances and challenges

As a part of the ‘Intensive Forest Monitoring Programme’ of ICP Forests, ground floor vegetation has been surveyed along with parameters of other relevant components of the forest ecosystems and their environment at 80 permanent plots all over Germany. Its floristic composition and their changes can therefore be linked to a wide variety of potentially influencing factors, scrutinising recent hypotheses on floristic changes, mainly soil eutrophication and acidification due to air pollutants. Results of a broad-scaled feasibility study are presented and critically discussed with regard to future in-depth evaluations. After an overview on the most abundant species, the syntaxonomic allocation of the plots is given. An ordination reveals a gradient from nutrient and base rich soils to poor acidic soils. Floristic dynamics are mainly aligned with the main axis, but conclusions about the medium-term development cannot be stated yet. Ordination and subsequent statistics are recommended to open up a wide field for explorative investigations. Indicator values for soil acidity and nutrient supply corroborate the main floristic gradient. Based on an empirical species–area relationship (SAR), species numbers for a common plot size of 400 m² were calculated. Basic relationships among different diversity measures and between diversity measures and basic stand and site-related parameters were elaborated. Recommendations focus on enhancements of the assessment of ground floor vegetation within the context of the Level II monitoring like annual sampling or harmonisation of the plot sizes.