The prevalence of porcine cysticercosis in Eastern and Southern provinces of Zambia

The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence and importance of porcine cysticercosis in rural areas of Zambia. The study involved an abattoir survey of 1316 pigs at a slaughter slab in Lusaka and two field surveys in villages in Southern and Eastern provinces. Lingual examination of live pigs and visual inspection of their carcass as well as blood sampling for measuring circulating parasite antigen by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Ag-ELISA) were used as parameters to measure infection. In the field surveys, a questionnaire was administered to every household whose pigs were examined to obtain information on pig husbandry practices and to study risk factors for the infection. Out of the 1316 pigs examined at the slaughter slab, 143 (10.9%) and 271 (20.6%) were positive by lingual examination and meat inspection, respectively. Most of the pigs were very heavily infected with predominantly live cysts. The field surveys revealed that eight (8.2%) out of 98 pigs from Southern province and eight (5.2%) out of 151 pigs from Eastern province were positive for cysticercosis by tongue palpation. Using the Ag-ELISA 20 (20.8%) and 14 (9.3%) pigs were positive in Southern and Eastern provinces, respectively. The questionnaire survey revealed poor pig husbandry practices, absence of meat inspection and control, poor knowledge of the disease and poor sanitation in the surveyed villages. The prevalence of pig cysticercosis found in this study ranks among the highest in the southern African region, in Africa and in the world. The current study suggests the presence of human tapeworm carriers and a high risk of human cysticercosis in the surveyed areas as well as in urban centres where pigs from rural areas are increasingly sold, slaughtered and consumed.     

Prevalence of Taenia solium porcine cysticercosis in the Eastern, Southern and Western provinces of Zambia

Tongue examination and detection of circulating antigen (Ag-ELISA) were used to establish the prevalence of Taenia solium porcine cysticercosis in free-range pigs in selected districts of Eastern, Southern and Western provinces of Zambia, and to determine if prevalence of porcine cysticercosis was associated with age, breed and sex. Households with pigs were identified using the snowballing technique. A total of 1691 pigs were examined out of which 183 (10.8%) were positive on tongue examination. Ag-ELISA gave a sero-prevalence of 23.3%. When considering the factors in a logistic regression analysis, only breed type was significantly associated with porcine cysticercosis (OR=0.72; 95%CI=0.63-0.81). The crossbred pigs were 72% more likely to have had cysticercosis than the Nsenga (dwarf local) breed as determined by Ag-ELISA. The result that crossbred pigs had a higher prevalence of T. solium cysticercosis suggests that pig breeds may display different susceptibility to cysticercosis. The limited use of latrines in these areas implies that people use the nearby bush for defecation, resulting in pigs having access to human faeces. Therefore, investigation of taeniosis and cysticercosis in humans is warranted to better comprehend the local epidemiology and transmission risks. This should then be followed by extension programs to communities so that the control plans that could be instituted are more sustainable.     

Control of the taeniosis/cysticercosis complex: future developments

Cysticercosis is due to the establishment of the larval stage of the zoonotic cestode parasite Taenia solium. The infection causes substantial human morbidity and mortality, particularly in several Latin American countries and parts of Africa and Asia, as well as economic losses in pig husban dry due to condemnation of infected pork meat. The life cycle of T. solium includes human beings as definitive hosts and pigs as intermediate hosts. Cysticercosis is acquired by the ingestion of eggs released by human tapeworm carriers, who become infected after ingesting pork meat contaminated with cysticerci. Taenia solium transmission has been associated with poverty, lack of sanitary services and practices of rearing backyard pigs with free access to the areas that villagers use as toilets, as well as cultural behaviour. Nonetheless, due to the recent increase of migration and tourism, industrial countries are also reporting cases of human cysticercosis. There are many epidemiological studies that have been conducted mainly in Latin American countries that have evaluated intervention measures for control of cysticercosis including the development and testing of vaccines. Furthermore, the involvement of international agencies and institutions, such as the World Health Organization, the Food and Agriculture Organization and the International Livestock Research Institute, as well as the commitment of policymakers, scientists and field workers, are key means for the sustainable control and, hopefully, eradication of T. solium infections.     

Risk factors associated with increased mortality of farmed Pacific oysters in Ireland during 2011

The Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, plays a significant role in the aquaculture industry in Ireland. Episodes of increased mortality in C. gigas have been described in many countries, and in Ireland since 2008. The cause of mortality events in C. gigas spat and larvae is suspected to be multifactorial, with ostreid herpesvirus 1 (OsHV-1, in particular OsHV-1 μvar) considered a necessary, but not sufficient, cause. The objectives of the current study were to describe mortality events that occurred in C. gigas in Ireland during the summer of 2011 and to identify any associated environmental, husbandry and oyster endogenous factors. A prospective cohort study was conducted during 2010–2012, involving 80 study batches, located at 24 sites within 17 bays. All 17 bays had previously tested positive for OsHV-1 μvar. All study farmers were initially surveyed to gather relevant data on each study batch, which was then tracked from placement in the bay to first grading. The outcome of interest was cumulative batch-level mortality (%). Environmental data at high and low mortality sites were compared, and a risk factor analysis, using a multiple linear regression mixed effects model, was conducted. Cumulative batch mortality ranged from 2% to 100% (median = 16%, interquartile range: 10–34%). The final multivariable risk factor model indicated that batches imported from French hatcheries had significantly lower mortalities than non-French hatcheries; sites which tested negative for OsHV-1 μvar during the study had significantly lower mortalities than sites which tested positive and mortalities increased with temperature until a peak was reached. There were several differences between the seed stocks from French and non-French hatcheries, including prior OsHV-1 μvar exposure and ploidy. A range of risk factors relating to farm management were also considered, but were not found significant. The relative importance of prior OsHV-1 μvar infection and ploidy will become clearer with ongoing selection towards OsHV-1 μvar resistant oysters. Work is currently underway in Ireland to investigate these factors further, by tracking seed from various hatchery sources which were put to sea in 2012 under similar husbandry and environmental conditions.     

Seroprevalence and risk factors associated with Toxoplasma gondii infection in pig farms from Catalonia, north-eastern Spain

Seroprevalence and associated risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection in pigs were analyzed in 1202 sera samples, including sows and pigs of three, seven, 11, 15 and 20 weeks of age, from 23 farms in Catalonia, north-eastern Spain. Antibodies were tested by the modified agglutination test (MAT) at titers ?1:25. Antibodies to T. gondii were found in 228 samples (19.0%; 95% CI: 16.8-21.2). The individual prevalence in animals higher than 7 weeks of age was 22.8% (174/762; 95% CI: 16.6-29.0) and the within-farm prevalence ranged from 7.1% to 36.4%. Statistically significant differences were found among age classes. The risk factors significantly associated with T. gondii seroprevalence were the presence of cats, percentage of mortality at weaning and the presence of outdoor facilities in the farms. The seroprevalence observed in the present study indicates widespread exposure to T. gondii among domestic pigs in Catalonia, which may have important implications for public health.     

Recombinant S3Pvac-phage anticysticercosis vaccine: Simultaneous protection against cysticercosis and hydatid disease in rural pigs

This paper provides macroscopic and histological evidence on the statistically significant protective effects of S3Pvac-phage vaccination against porcine cysticercosis and hydatidosis. The study included 391 rustically bred pigs (187 vaccinated and 204 controls). Vaccination significantly reduced the prevalence of cysticercosis by 61.7%. Vaccination also significantly reduced by 56.1% the prevalence of hydatidosis caused by Echinococcus granulosus in pigs. The presence of the vaccine epitopes in both cestodes is probably involved in the cross-protection observed. Increased inflammation was found in 5% of cysticerci recovered from controls, versus 24% from vaccinated pigs (P<0.01). Hydatid cysts were non-inflammatory in either group. Vaccination was effective to prevent one single disease, but it failed to prevent the simultaneous infections with both parasites in a same pig. The widening of the S3Pvac-phage vaccine protective repertoire to include hydatidosis is a convenient feature that should reduce the prevalence of two frequent zoonoses that affect rustic porcine breading with a single action. Thus, the costs of two different vaccination programs would be reduced to a single one with significant reduction in both zoonoses.     

Isolation of a 14 kDa antigen from Taenia solium cyst fluid by HPLC and its evaluation in enzyme linked immunosorbent assay for diagnosis of porcine cysticercosis

A fraction with a major band of 14kDa was obtained from crude cyst fluid of Taenia solium cysticerci by 2-step chromatography. A first fraction isolated by gel filtration (Sephacryl S-300 high resolution) was purified using an anion exchange column (Mono Q HR 5/5) on high performance liquid chromatography. Evaluation of the analytic sensitivity of this fraction (F3) was carried out in an antibody enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (Ab-ELISA-F3) using serum samples from pigs experimentally infected with different doses of T. solium eggs. The cross-reactivity of F3 was evaluated with serum samples from pigs that were naturally or experimentally infected with Taenia hydatigena, Taenia saginata asiatica, Fasciola hepatica, Trichinella spiralis, Metastrongylus apri, Trypanosoma congolense and Sarcoptes scabiei, and with serum samples of rabbits hyper-immunised with metacestode cyst fluid of T. hydatigena and T. solium. Antibody titres of lightly or heavily infected pigs differed in their kinetics. However, the increase in F3-specific antibodies could not be related to the infection level. Analysis of the specificity of the F3 showed that serum samples of pigs infected with other parasites did not recognise this antigen. Cross-reaction with T. hydatigena occurred in ELISA using cyst fluid as antigen, but the F3 antigen fraction was not recognized by rabbit hyper-immune serum samples to T. hydatigena. Evaluation of the diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of the Ab-ELISA-F3 was done by a non-parametric receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis using 66 serum samples from Zambian village pigs. The total number of cysticerci of these pigs was determined by dissection (28 pigs harboured T. solium cysticerci and 38 were negative at dissection). In addition, 58 serum samples from Cameroonian pigs (28 pigs from cysticercosis-free farms and 30 pigs with cysticerci at tongue inspection) were used in a separate ROC analysis. The results from the ROC analysis yielded a low diagnostic value (area under ROC curve=0.48) with the sera from the Zambian pigs while a relatively high diagnostic value was obtained with the sera from Cameroonian pigs (area under ROC curve=0.78). The main factor contributing to a low diagnostic value based on the Zambian serum samples seemed to be the false-positive reactions that were likely caused by the occurrence of transient antibodies in the non-infected animals.     

Risk factors for the prevalence of porcine cysticercosis in Mbulu District, Tanzania

To estimate prevalence of and risk factors for the prevalence of porcine cysticercosis in Mbulu District, Tanzania, 770 live pigs were examined by lingual examination in 21 villages. Structured observations and questionnaire interviews were used to assess pig rearing practices and household use of latrines. Associations between factors were analyzed using a Bayesian hierarchical model to obtain prevalence odds ratio (OR) and 95% Bayesian Credible Intervals (95% BCI). Prevalence was 17.4% (village-specific range 3.2–46.7%). Prevalence of porcine cysticercosis was considerably higher in pigs reared in households lacking latrines than in those reared in households that were using latrines (OR=2.04; 95% BCI=1.25, 3.45). About 96% of the pigs were kept under free-range conditions. This study suggests the need for further studies in order to design and implement effective prevention and control measures for porcine cysticercosis in Mbulu District, Tanzania.     

Prevalence and risk factors of Campylobacter infection in broiler flocks from southern Spain

An extensive epidemiological study was performed to determine the prevalence and risk factors of Campylobacter infection in broiler farms in Andalusia (southern Spain). A total of 2221 cloacal swabs and 747 environmental swabs from 291 broiler flocks were screened between April 2010 and May 2012. The prevalence of Campylobacter in individual animals was 38.1%, and the flock prevalence was 62.9%. Flocks were predominantly infected by C. jejuni and C. coli but were also infected by untyped Campylobacter spp., and mixed-species infection could be found. Risk factors for Campylobacter infection were assessed from direct interview of the farmers. The number of positive samples by flock was modelled assuming a binomial distribution. Analysis indicated five factors associated with increased intra-flock prevalence: presence of dogs or cats on the farm, older age of the broiler flock, the application of thinning of flocks, the presence of windows with canvas blinds, and the presence of rodents in the poultry house. Two factors were associated with decreased intra-flock prevalence: the treatment of drinking water and having an entrance room for access into the poultry house. This is the first study performed on broilers farms from Spain reporting the risk factors of Campylobacter infection and is the largest study on the prevalence of Campylobacter infection.     

Risk factors associated with camel brucellosis in Jordan

During the period between February, 2004 and December, 2006, a cross-sectional study was performed to investigate some epidemiological aspects related to camel brucellosis in Jordan. Four hundred twelve camel sera from 37 herds were randomly collected and analyzed using Rose Bengal plate test and complement fixation test. A structured pre-tested questionnaire was administered to collect information on camel herd health and management. A multivariable logistic regression model was constructed to investigate risk factors associated with seropositivity to Brucella antigens. Moreover, the incidence of Brucella-specific abortion was investigated in 7 camel herds located in different locations in Southern Jordan. The true prevalence of Brucella-seropositive in camels was 12.1%. Thirteen (35.1%) herds had at least one positive camel. The seroprevalence of brucellosis in camels was significantly higher in the southern part of Jordan than that in central or northern Jordan. The multivariable logistic regression model on both individual and herd levels revealed large herds and contact with small ruminants as risk factors for Brucella seropositivity. On the other hand, using disinfectants was identified as a protective factor (OR = 0.8; 95% CI: 0.1, 0.9) only on the camel herd level. The incidence of Brucella-caused abortion was 1.9%. Brucella melitensis biotype 3 was isolated from 4 aborted camel fetuses.     

Risk factors for Coxiella burnetii antibodies in bulk tank milk from Danish dairy herds

The aim was to identify risk factors associated with Coxiella burnetii antibody positivity in bulk tank milk (BTM) samples from 100 randomly selected Danish dairy cattle herds. Antibody levels were measured by an enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent assay. Before testing the herds, the farm managers were interviewed about hired labour, biosecurity, housing and herd health during the 12 months prior to the study. Variables considered important for C. burnetii antibody positivity in multivariable logistic regression analysis included the sharing of machines between farms (OR = 3.6), human contacts (OR = 4.2), artificial insemination by other people than artificial insemination technicians (OR = 7.7), routine herd health contract with the veterinarian (OR = 4.3) and hygiene precautions taken by veterinarians (OR = 5). In addition, herd size, hired labour, trading of cattle between farms, quarantine and use of calving and disease pens also showed significant association in univariable analysis. This study demonstrates that strict biosecurity is important for the prevention of infections with C. burnetii.     

Seroprevalence and risk factors of Mycoplasma suis infection in pig farms in central China

Mycoplasma suis, the causative agent of porcine infectious anemia, causes large economic losses to the swine industry worldwide. A questionnaire-based survey was conducted in 69 pig farms in Hubei Province, China, from November 2011 to August 2013 to ascertain the prevalence and associated risk factors of M. suis. Four thousand and four blood samples from pigs of all the age groups were tested for M. suis antibodies using the established rMSG1–ELISA assay. Among these 4004 samples, 1615 blood samples from multiparous sows were examined to identify the association between seroprevalence and different seasons. Information on risk factors collected from farmers or attending veterinarians was recorded on a pre-designed questionnaire. The overall test seroprevalence of M. suis infection at the animal level was 31.9% (1277/4004; 95% CI: 30.5%, 33.4%), whereas at the farm level, this value was 95.65% (66/69; 95% CI: 87.8%, 99.1%). The seroprevalence of M. suis was higher in replacement gilts (40.6%; 95% CI: 35.1%, 46.3%), multiparous sows (48.2%; 95% CI: 45.8%, 50.7%) and boars (44.4%; 95% CI: 34.5%, 54.8%), as compared to piglets (13.0%; 95% CI: 9.4%, 17.3%), weaned-piglets (10.8%; 95% CI: 8.9%, 13.0%), and growing-finishing pigs (25.0%; 95% CI: 22.0%, 28.3%). In terms of seasons, the prevalence of M. suis in pigs was significantly higher in summer (65.3%; 95% CI: 61.0%, 69.5%) and autumn (65.0%; 95% CI: 59.0%, 70.6%) compared to spring (30.1%; 95% CI: 26.0%, 34.4%) and winter (36.4%; 95% CI: 31.4%, 41.5%). Farm-level risk factors were identified by multivariable logistic regression analysis. The associated factors retained in the final multivariable logistic regression model were drug treatment, presence of mosquitoes and flies, and frequency of disinfection. Drug treatment (OR = 0.24; 95% CI: 0.07, 0.88; P = 0.031) and frequency of disinfection (OR = 0.23; 95% CI: 0.06, 0.90; P = 0.035) were protective factors, and the presence of mosquitoes and flies (OR = 5.994; 95% CI: 1.56, 23.00; P = 0.009) was a risk factor for M. suis infection on farms. The results of the present study provide the first insight into the impact of associated determinants on M. suis infection in central China.     

Prevalence and molecular characterization of bovine coenurosis from Eastern Anatolian region of Turkey

This study was conducted to determine the prevalence and molecular characteristics of Coenurus cerebralis, the metacestode of Taenia multiceps in cattle from Erzurum province located in eastern region of Turkey between November 2009 and April 2010. Five of 1045 brains of cattle (0.47%) were found to be infected with Coenurus cysts. The characteristics and morphology of C. cerebralis were seen in all the cysts. The cyts from three infected cattle were genetically analyzed and confirmed to be T. multiceps metacestodes by NAD1 and COX1 mitochondrial gene sequence analysis. Pairwise comparison between the NAD1 sequences of the T. multiceps isolates from Erzurum and other T. multiceps isolates available in GenBank showed differences ranging from 0.6 to 2.9%, while COX1 sequences showed differences ranging from 0.2 to 2.6%. Considering the two genes, it was seen that all of the three isolates from Erzurum province were in the same group according to phylogenetic analyses. The present findings could provide a stimulus for future studies on the systematic relationships and epidemiology of lesser-known taeniid cestodes in the region, employing mitochondrial sequence data sets.     

Sero-prevalences of selected cattle diseases in the Kafue flats of Zambia

Sera from five traditionally managed herds grazing in the Kafue flats were tested for antibodies to bovine viral diarrhoea-mucosal disease (BVD-MD), parainfluenza 3 (PI3), infectious bovine rhinotracheitis-infectious pustular vulvovaginitis (IBR-IPV), bovine adenovirus 3 (BAV3) and Bluetongue (BT). The sero-prevalences of the first four diseases were respectively 76.2, 94.4, 42.1 and 87.4%. Five samples (2.3%) gave doubtful reactions for BT. Prevalences of 28.5% for brucellosis, 14% for Rift Valley fever (RFV), 0.9% for Q fever and 11.2% for chlamydiosis were also recorded. Significantly higher values for BVD-MD (p<0.005), IBR-IPV (p<0.01) and brucellosis (p<0.05) were found in animals over 1 year of age. No differences were recorded between herds or between male and female animals.The high concentration of wild and domestic ruminants grazing together in the flood plains during the dry season may be a major determinant of the high values observed. Traditional farmers, slaughterhouse workers and other people involved in livestock production are particularly at risk of contracting brucellosis and RVF because of the high prevalences in cattle and local habits favourable to their transmission.     

Seroprevalence and risk factors associated with seropositivity in sows from 67 herds in north-west Germany infected with Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae

Risk factors for the spread of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae in sows have not been studied although vertical transmission from sows to their offspring is considered a significant risk factor in the development of enzootic pneumonia in growers and finishers. Seropositivity for M. hyopneumoniae in sows, as assessed by commercial ELISA, is a possible indicator of infection pressure among sows. The objective of this study was to estimate seroprevalence and associated risk factors of a sow being seropositive for M. hyopneumoniae. A cross-sectional study was carried out in 2578 sows from 67 herds in north-west Germany. Data concerning general herd characteristics, acclimatisation practices, indoor and outside contacts, as well as data describing the immediate local environment were collected during a herd visit via questionnaire. Blood samples were seropositive in 65% of the 2578 sows, and all herds had ≥14% seropositive sows. Data analysis was performed in two steps. First, univariate analysis of predictor variables for the risk of a sow being seropositive for M. hyopneumoniae was performed using chi-square test. Secondly, all variables associated with the risk of a sow being seropositive (P ≤ 0.25) were included in a multivariate model using a generalised linear model. The risk of a sow being seropositive for M. hyopneumoniae was increased in herds with two- or three-site production (OR 1.50), when piglets were not vaccinated against M. hyopneumoniae (OR 1.81), in herds with a 2-week farrowing intervals (OR 1.84) and in herds without all-in/all-out management of the farrowing units (OR 1.37). The lack of an acclimatisation period for replacement boars was also associated with the risk of a sow being seropositive (OR 2.10). The results indicate that M. hyopneumoniae seropositivity is common in sows in north-west Germany and is influenced by various management factors. It is recommended that evaluation of sow herd management should be included in any strategic health plan to control M. hyopneumoniae infection.     

Risk factors for Listeria monocytogenes contamination in French laying hens and broiler flocks

The objective of this study was to identify potential risk factors for Listeria monocytogenes contamination in French poultry production. Eighty-four flocks of layer hens kept in cages and 142 broiler flocks were included in this study. For each production type, a questionnaire was submitted to farmers and fecal samples were taken to assess the L. monocytogenes status of the flocks during a single visit to the farm. Two logistic regression models (specific to each production) were used to assess the association between management practices and the risk of L. monocytogenes contamination of the flock. The prevalence of L. monocytogenes-positive flocks was 30.9% (95% CI: 21.0; 40.9) and 31.7% (95% CI: 24.0; 39.4) for cage-layers and broiler flocks, respectively. For layer flocks, the risk of L. monocytogenes contamination was increased when pets were present on the production site. When droppings were evacuated by conveyor belt with deep pit storage, the risk of L. monocytogenes contamination decreased significantly. Feed meal was found to be associated with a higher risk of L. monocytogenes contamination than feed crumb. For broiler flocks, the risk of L. monocytogenes contamination was increased when farmers did not respect the principle of two areas (clean and dirty) at the poultry house entrance. A first disinfection by thermal fogging and the absence of pest control of the poultry house before the arrival of the next flock was found to increase the risk of contamination. When litter was not protected during storage and when farm staff also took care of other broiler chicken houses, the risk of L. monocytogenes contamination increased significantly. In the case of the watering system, nipples with cups were found to decrease the risk of contamination.     

Prevalence and associated management factors of Cryptosporidium shedding in 50 Swedish dairy herds

Cryptosporidium parvum is a protozoan parasite causing diarrhoea in young calves. This cross-sectional study was performed to estimate the prevalence of Cryptosporidium infected herds in a sample of Swedish dairy herds and to identify potential risk factors associated with shedding of oocysts. Fifty dairy herds, selected by stratified random sampling, were included. The herds were visited once during the indoor seasons of 2005–2006 and 2006–2007. Faecal samples were collected from 10 calves, 10 young stock and 5 cows in each herd. Clinical observations of sampled animals and environmental status were recorded, and farmers were interviewed about management procedures. Faecal samples were cleaned by sodium chloride flotation and detection of oocysts was made by epifluorescence microscopy. Cryptosporidium parvum-like oocysts were found in 96% of the herds. Prevalence was 52% in calves, 29% in young stock and 5.6% in cows. Three two-day-old calves shed oocysts. Cryptosporidium andersoni was found in seven animals from four different herds. Factors associated with prevalence of shedders among sampled animals in a herd were age at weaning, cleaning of single calf pens, placing of young stock, system for moving young stock, and year of sampling. Factors associated with shedding in calves were age, placing of young stock, routines for moving young stock and time calf stays with the cow. The only significant factor in young stock was age. In cows, number of calves in the herd and type of farming (organic vs. conventional) affected shedding.     

Risk factors of bovine tuberculosis in cattle in rural livestock production systems of Ethiopia

This study shows a representative stratified cluster sample survey of the prevalence of comparative intradermal tuberculin test in cattle from four regions in Ethiopia. Using a cut-off for positivity of 2 mm, it assesses possible risk factors for tuberculin-positive reaction in cattle. Seventy-three villages in 24 kebeles (administrative units) were randomly selected, from which 2216 cattle from 780 owners were tested. In addition, 450 of these cattle owners were interviewed for risk factor assessment. Ninety-nine percent of the tested cattle in this rural livestock production system were traditional zebus. The individual overall prevalence of cattle bovine tuberculosis (BTB)e was 3%, with the highest found in Meskan Mareko, in Central Ethiopia (7.9%) and the lowest in Woldia, in the North East edge of the Rift Valley (1.2%). Generalised Linear Mixed Models (GLMM) with random effect on kebeles was used to analyse risk factors of cattle reactors and human tuberculosis (TB) infection. Purchase of cattle and presence of other livestock in the herd were statistically significant, with OR: 1.7, p-values of 0.03 and OR: 2, p = 0.05, respectively. Family members diagnosed with TB or showing clinical signs of extra-pulmonary TB (EPTB) were reported in 86 households (19%). None of the assessed potential risk factors of disease transmission between cattle and human (food consumption, livestock husbandry and presence of BTB-positive cattle) were statistically significant.     

Risk factors for occupational brucellosis among veterinary personnel in Turkey

Veterinarians and veterinary technicians are at risk for occupational brucellosis. We described the risk factors of occupational brucellosis among veterinary personnel in Turkey. A multicenter retrospective survey was performed among veterinary personnel who were actively working in the field. Of 712 veterinary personnel, 84 (11.8%) had occupational brucellosis. The median number of years since graduation was 7 (interquartile ranges [IQR], 4–11) years in the occupational brucellosis group, whereas this number was 9 (IQR, 4–16) years in the non-brucellosis group (p < 0.001). In multivariable analysis, working in the private sector (odds ratio [OR], 2.8; 95% confidence interval [95% CI], 1.55–5.28, p = 0.001), being male (OR, 4.5; 95% CI, 1.05–18.84, p = 0.041), number of performed deliveries (OR, 1.01; 95% CI, 1.002–1.02, p = 0.014), and injury during Brucella vaccine administration (OR, 5.4; 95% CI, 3.16–9.3, p < 0.001) were found to be risk factors for occupational brucellosis. We suggest that all veterinary personnel should be trained on brucellosis and the importance of using personal protective equipment in order to avoid this infection.     

Cross-sectional survey on Toxoplasma gondii infection in cattle, sheep and pigs in Serbia: seroprevalence and risk factors

Toxoplasmosis is a globally distributed zoonosis with a clinical impact in the unborn fetus and in the immunosuppressed individual. In Serbia, studies of risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection in humans have shown that the relatively high prevalence is associated mainly with consumption of undercooked meat and/or meat products. However, data on T. gondii infection in domestic animals mostly used for human consumption are scarce. We thus conducted a cross-sectional survey on the seroprevalence of T. gondii infection in a representative sample of cattle, sheep and pigs from different regions of Serbia between June 2002 and June 2003, and analyzed the main risk factors associated with the infection. Sera from 611 cattle (yearlings and adults of both sexes), 511 ewes, and 605 pigs (market-weight and sows), were examined for T. gondii antibodies by the modified agglutination test. The seroprevalences determined were 76.3% in cattle, 84.5% in sheep and 28.9% in pigs. The antibody levels ranged from 1:25 to 1:400 in cattle, and up to 1:25,600 in sheep and to 1:12,800 in pigs. Among the seropositive, the proportion of high antibody levels (> or =1:1600), suggestive of acute infection, was 10% in sheep, and 4% in pigs. Possible association of the infection with biologically plausible risk factors including gender, age, herd size/farm type, type of housing, feeding practices and region, was analyzed by univariate analysis, and variables significant at P< or =0.1 were included in multivariate logistic regression models. The results showed that risk factors for cattle were small herd size (odds ratio, OR=2.19, 95% confidence interval, CI=1.28-3.75, P=0.004) and farm location in Western Serbia (OR=2.04, 95% CI=1.10-3.79, P=0.024), while housing in stables with access to outside pens was protective (OR=0.37, 95% CI=0.21-0.67, P=0.001). In sheep, an increased risk of infection was found in ewes from state-owned flocks (OR=4.18, 95% CI=2.18-8.00, P<0.001) vs. private flocks, and, interestingly, also in those from Western Serbia (OR=4.66, 95% CI=1.18-18.32, P=0.028). In pigs, the risk of infection was highly increased in adult animals (OR=3.87, 95% CI=2.6-5.76, P<0.001), as well as in those from finishing type farms (OR=3.96, 95% CI=1.97-7.94, P<0.001). In addition to providing data on the current T. gondii seroprevalence in meat animals in Serbia, the results of this study show the main risk factors associated with infection, thereby pointing to the type of preventive measures to reduce T. gondii infection.