Effects of Nitrogen Additions on Soil Seed Banks of a Freshwater Marsh in Sanjiang Plain,Northeast China

Over the past five decades, the natural wetlands in Sanjiang Plain, Northeast China, have been extensively reclaimed for agriculture with a total loss of nearly 80% of the surface area and the undrained marshes have received a large amount of exogenous nitrogen （N） input from the adjacent agricultural land because of fertilization. In the present study, the effects of nitrogen additions on seed germination and seedling biomass of Calamagrostis angustifolia in freshwater marsh were tested in a greenhouse study. Seed bank soil was exposed to different N additions （0, 5, 10, 20 and 40 g/m^2） under non-flooded water regime. Results revealed that, low level of N additions （less than 10 g/m^2） did not significantly affect the species richness and seedling density, while the seedling biomass at 5 g/m^2 of N addition was higher than other nutrient conditions. But species richness, seedling emergence and biomass decreased significantly at high level of N additions （20-40 g/m^2）. The responses were species-specific. High level of N additions had negative impacts on seed germination, seedling growth and biomass of dominant species Eleocharis ovata, Calamagrostis angustifolia, duncus effusus in the seed bank. To protect and restore the wetland vegetation community in the Sanjiang plain, fertilization, irrigation and land management strategies will need to be implemented to reduce the nutrient input from the agricultural land to the wetlands.     

Frictional Behavior of Sunflower Seed and its Kernel as a Function of Moisture Content,Variety and Size

The object of this study was to investigate the frictional properties （repose angles and friction coefficient） of Iranian sunflower seed and its kernel （Fandoghi, Azargol and Shahroodi） as a function of moisture content, size and variety. The static coefficient of friction were determined on five structural surfaces including aluminium, plywood, galvanized iron, polyethylene and rubber when moisture content varied between 3 and 14 % d.b. The obtained results showed that static coefficient of friction on five studied surfaces increase linearly as moisture content increase from 3 to 14% for both seed and kernel. Among the applied surfaces, rubber showed the highest value of friction coefficient for both sunflower seed and kernel followed by plywood, polyethylene, galvanized iron and aluminium. The obtained values of emptying and filling angles of repose increase linearly with an increase in moisture content. Furthermore, the values of empting and filling angles of repose for small sizes were higher than big sizes in all levels of moisture content for both seed and kernel. Also, the emptying angle of repose assumed higher values than the filling angle of repose for all varieties and categories.     

Influences of Seed Source,Pre-chilling,Light and Temperature on the Germination of South African Pelargonium sidoides

Pelargonium sidoides DC is used in herbal medicine for the treatment of various infections. The roots are being indiscriminately harvested for local and export trade and the collection rate is becoming unsustainable. Seed germination dynamics of this species was studied with the aim to reveal factors that influence its survival in the wild in order to adopt the appropriate germination conditions for use in ex-situ propagation and conservation program. Germination was affected by age of seeds, temperature and pre-chilling conditions. Temperature higher than 25 oC reduced germination by 60%. When seeds of P. sidoides were subjected to pre-chilling treatment for seven days, there was a significant drop in final germination by 29% compared to the other treatments. Although, final germination was not affected by different light treatments, continuous light significantly promoted germination velocity Seeds harvested from the plants grown in the green house performed better in germination than those collected from the field. The ecological implications of these observations on the propagation and conservation ofP. sidoides are discussed.     

Impediments to New Improved Maize Variety Testing and Release in Selected Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa

Before farmers can benefit from new improved maize varieties with novel genetic information, new maize varieties have to undergo performance testing, registration and approval. The registration procedures require that new maize varieties must pass the tests for value for cultivation and use （VCU） and standardized tests for distinctness, uniformity and stability （DUS）. To meet the minimum requirements for variety release, public and private sector maize breeding programs routinely assemble breeding nurseries and evaluate variety performance in National and Regional Performance Trials （NRPT） with the objective of generating important agronomic data to identify the best maize varieties for release. In spite of intensive variety evaluation in regional and national trials, only few maize varieties have been registered and released annually in sub-Saharan Africa （SSA） denying farmers access to new improved varieties. The purpose of this study was to identify constraints hampering the registration and release of elite maize gennplasm and make recommends on how to quicken the deployment of elite germplasm to smallholders＇ farmers. A survey was conducted on the varietal testing and release systems in 14 selected countries （Angola, Benin, Ethiopia, Malawi, Ghana, Mali, Mozambique, Nigeria, Tanzania, Kenya, South Africa, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe） in SSA. The results from the study show that regulations on variety testing and release procedures in the various countries are overlapping and rigid hindering the deployment and commercialization of new improved maize germplasm. The study also showed that varietal release rates fluctuated between countries with South Africa having the highest number of varietal release rates per year and some countries failing to release a single variety per year.     

Effect of Seed Sizes on the Growth and Establishment of Seedlings of Sheanut Tree （Vitellaria paradoxa）

Seed size can influence germination, emergence and further development of plants to produce high yield. Therefore, pot trial was conducted to assess the effects of seed sizes on growth and establishment of sheanut tree seedlings （Vitellaria paradoxa） in tlae southern Guinea savanna of Nigeria. Seedlings produced from large sized seed had higher germination （80%） than those from medium （70%） and small （65%） sized seeds. Number of days to emergence of seedling from large-sized seed planting was 30 days, 49 days for small- and medium-sized seeds. Large sized seeds had higher N, P, K, Ca and Mg contents compared with small and medium sized seeds. Generally, seedlings from large sized seeds had about 1.5 times more leaves than medium sized seeds and about 2 times more leaves than small sized seeds at 8, 10, 12, 14 and 16 weeks after planting （WAP）. Seedlings from large sized seeds were taller and had larger stem girth （at 16WAP） than those from medium sized seeds. Variations in seedling growth from seed sizes could be of operational importance in nursery management as seeds can be sown according to size to improve uniformity. However, further studies to ascertain if the superior growth of seedlings from large sized seeds will lead to higher yield is recommended.     

南疆油葵产量与密度的关系及耐密性研究

作物种植密度与产量密切相关，是农业生产中重要技术因素之一。本试验以杂交油葵G101为材料系统研究了产量与密度的关系。结果表明，单株生物产量、群体生物产量、单盘籽粒产量和群体籽粒产量均随密度的升高呈规律性变化，单株生物产量和群体生物产量分别符合W=1/(a bx)和W=x/(a bx)模式，单盘籽粒产量和群体籽粒产量分别符合W=ae^bx和W=axe^bx模式。株高、千粒重、盘径、茎粗符合Y=a bx方程，秕粒率符合Y=a bx cx^2的模式。试验得出最高群体生物产量为23691．06kg／hm^2和最大群体籽粒产量为3740．00kg／hm^2，最适密度为65759．19株／hm^2。     

Studies on Diversity of Leaf Morphological Traits of Plants Regenerated from ＂Miniature Seeds＂ in Loquat

The genetic diversity of 79 accessions regenerated from ＂miniature seeds＂ of loquat （Eriobotrya japonica Lindl. cv. ＇Dawuxing＇） was analyzed based on 13 morphological characteristics of leaves in this study, in order to provide important morphological basis for breeding new varieties and materials through ＂miniature seed＂ breeding method in loquat. The results showed that there was abundant genetic diversity in leaf morphological characteristics of regenerated plants （D=0.785）, especially indicated by diversity indexes of leaf length （D=0.991）, leaf width （D=0.994）, petiole length （D=0.982）, petiole thickness （D=0.995） and leaf thickness （D=0.987）. And all the characteristic values varied broadly with coefficients of variation ranging from 9.84% to 40.09%; 79 accessions were divided into 6 groups by UPGMA method, there were significant differences in leaf morphological traits among the 6 groups; Group I and group VI were quite different from other groups and parent plants （cv. ＂Dawuxing＂）. The leaves of group I were darkgreen, large, hard and thick with long and thick petioles; while those of group VI were yellowgreen, small, thin and soft with slender petioles. These two groups were important excellent germplasm. Based on the abundant genetic diversity in leaf morphological characteristics, the breeding via ＂miniature seeds＂ was considered as an efficient method for broadening the germplasm resources and breeding new varieties of loquat.     

Impact of Climate and Grazing on Biomass Components of Eastern Russia Typical Steppe

Spatial and structural characteristics of plant communities in the steppe ecosystems of the Baikal region, Russian Federation have been researched in connection with climate change and grazing. The present study, based on a total of 15 typical steppe sampling plots, investigated above-ground biomass （AGB）, below-ground biomass （BGB）, total biomass （TB） and root：shoot ratios （R：S） and their relationships with climatic factors and grazing. All biomass components varied widely depending on the climatic parameters and the degree of grazing affected transformation. A strong negative correlation between mean annual temperature （MAT） and total plant biomass was revealed for all study area. Mean annual precipitation （MAP） signiifcantly affected communities productivity increasing only in the south of the region. Due to the large and mountainous territory, the inlfuence of latitude and elevation （mountain） factors on the components of the biomass were studied. Although all studied plant steppe communities were transformed by uncontrolled grazing, their productivity is signiifcantly reduced only at plots with maximum digression. Vegetation shift is an indicator of climate change, as well as providing a diagnostic tool to build predictive models. Based on the complex index of effective precipitation, it was revealed that at the end of last century in the steppes of the Baikal region the structural and production processes will be affected by an arid climate trend.     

Effects of Multi-enzyme Preparations on Growth Performance,Apparent Total Tract Digestibility and In Vitro Digestibility for Growing Pigs

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of enzyme supplementations on performance of growing pigs, apparent total tract digestibility （ATTD） and in vitro digestibility （IVD） of nutrients. 224 growing pigs weighing 30-4-1.2 kg were allocated to fed basal diets supplemented with 0, 0.1, 0.15 or 0.2 g/kg enzyme preparations in growth trail. Those four diets were used for in vio＇o digestibility study. Pigs fed enzyme-supplemented diets improved average daily gain and decreased ratio of feed/gain （P〈0.05）. Enzyme supplementations increased ATTD of dry matter, energy, crude protein, neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent fibre and hemicellulose （P〈0.05）. Supplementation with enzymes improved reducing sugar production and the IVD of dry matter, crude protein, neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent fibre, total arabinoxylans, galacturonic acid, hemicellulose and cellulose. 0.015% enzyme supplementation in diets seemed to be sufficient to achieve maximum growth performance, nutrients digestibilities and reducing sugar production. Collectively, these results suggested that the supplementation of enzymes in diet increased the digestibilities of nutrients through the promotion of NSP degradation, thereby enhancing growth performance of growing pigs.     

Observed Climatic Variations in the Growing Season of Field Crops in Northeast China from 1992 to 2012

To determine the potential effects of climate change on crop phenological development and productivity, an integrated analysis was conducted based on the observed climatic and phenological records of Northeast China from 1992 to 2012. A set of quality assurance procedures, including repeated record checks, agro-meteorological station selection, internal consistency checks, temporal outlier checks, spatial outlier checks, and interpolation of missing data, were designed and applied to the phenology datasets of spring maize and paddy rice. Our results indicated that almost all phenological dates of spring maize and paddy rice became increasingly delayed from 1992 to 2012, The duration of the growing season was prolonged, particularly for the grain-filling stage （GS3）. The prolonged growing season was beneficial to productivity. For spring maize, the average precipitation during GS3 decreased at a rate of 27.46 mm/decade, and the annual accumulated temperature over 10℃ increased at a rate of 31.07℃/ decade. Farmers initiatively adjusted crop cultivars and selected drought-resistant crops to cope with the challenges of drought.     

Some Engineering Properties of Sunflower Seed and Its Kernel

Some engineering properties of sunflower seed and its kernel, Shahroodi variety as a case study, were investigated at various moisture content levels （3-14% d.b.） for three size categories （large, medium and small）. With increase of moisture content from 3 to 14% d.b., all the main dimensions （length, width and thickness）, geometric mean diameter, porosity, true density, terminal velocity and static coefficient of friction increased while bulk density and rupture force for both sunflower seed and its kernel decreased for all size categories. The results showed that the highest value of static coefficient of friction for both seed and kernel was on the rubber surface, followed by plywood, polyethylene, galvanized iron, and finally aluminium surfaces. The seeds required less compressive force to dehull when loaded under the horizontal as compared to the vertical orientation. But for kernels, the trend was the opposite. Also, the compressive forces needed to initiate rupture of sunflower seed hulls were higher （47.1-94.72 N） than those required to rupture the kernel （8.5-13.4 N） in both orientations.     

Biomass and Carbon Sequestration Potential of Poplar-Wheat Inter-cropping System in Irrigated Agro-ecosystem in India

An attempt has been made to assess the productivity as well as the carbon sequestration potential of this mixture. The grain as well as straw yields were significantly lower in poplar block plantations than in the open （14 to 64% and 13 to 66% grain and straw yield, respectively under one to six year plantation）. The annual productivity of poplars was recorded maximum after fourth year and later the annual wood increment decreased （42.4, 39.8 and 35.6 m^3/ha/yr after 4^th, 5^th and 6^th year, respectively）. The enrichment of soil through litter and roots enhanced the organic carbon in the surface layer of soil （0-15 cm） under poplar blocks as compared to open fields with wheat crop only. The carbon storage potential in agroforestry system was recorded very high in comparison to sole crop. The carbon storage in agroforestry system increased with the age of the plantation and the major contribution came from the timber, roots and litter （37.30 mg/ha after six years）. However, wheat crop yield decreased under poplar but this may be compensated by the poplar trees in terms of biomass, economic returns and the carbon sequestration potential.     

Basic Soil Productivity of Spring Maize in Black Soil Under Long-Term Fertilization Based on DSSAT Model

Increasing basic farmland soil productivity has significance in reducing fertilizer application and maintaining high yield of crops. In this study, we defined that the basic soil productivity （BSP） is the production capacity of a farmland soil with its own physical and chemical properties for a specific crop season under local environment and field management. Based on 22-yr （1990-2011） long-term experimental data on black soil （Typic hapludoll） in Gongzhuling, Jilin Province, Northeast China, the decision support system for an agro-technology transfer （DSSAT）-CERES-Maize model was applied to simulate the yield by BSP of spring maize （Zea mays L.） to examine the effects of long-term fertilization on changes of BSP and explore the mechanisms of BSP increasing. Five treatments were examined： （1） no-fertilization control （control）; （2） chemical nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium （NPK）; （3） NPK plus farmyard manure （NPKM）; （4） 1.5 time of NPKM （1.5NPKM） and （5） NPK plus straw （NPKS）. Results showed that after 22-yr fertilization, the yield by BSP of spring maize significantly increased 78.0, 101.2, and 69.4% under the NPKM, 1.5NPKM and NPKS, respectively, compared to the initial value （in 1992）, but not significant under NPK （26.9% increase） and the control （8.9% decrease）. The contribution percentage of BSP showed a significant rising trend （P〈0.05） under 1.5NPKM. The average contribution percentage of BSP among fertilizations ranged from 74.4 to 84.7%, and ranked as 1.5NPKM〉NPKM〉NPK〉NPKS, indicating that organic manure combined with chemical fertilizers （I.5NPKM and NPKM） could more effectively increase BSP compared with the inorganic fertilizer application alone （NPK） in the black soil. This study showed that soil organic matter （SOM） was the key factor among various fertility factors that could affect BSP in the black soil, and total N, total P and/or available P also played important role in BSP increasing. Compared with the chemical fertilization, a balanced chemical plus manure or straw fertilization （NPKM or NPKS） not only increased the concentrations of soil nutrient, but also improved the soil physical properties, and structure and diversity of soil microbial population, resulting in an iincrease of BSP. We recommend that a balanced chemical plus manure or straw fertilization （NPKM or NPKS） should be the fertilization practices to enhance spring maize yield and improve BSP in the black soil of Northeast China.     

Mechanical Properties of Sunflower Seed and Its Kernel,Azargol Variety as a Case Study,under Compressive Loading

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of moisture content, size and loading orientation on mechanical properties such as force, deformation and energy absorbed per unit volume for fracturing Iranian sunflower seed and its kernel （Azargol as a case study） under quasi-static loading. Sunflower seeds and their kernels were quasi-statically loaded in horizontal and vertical orientations with moisture content in three levels： 3%, 7% and 14%, and size category in three levels： small, medium and large. The obtained results showed that rupture force for both sunflower seed and its kernel decreased with increasing moisture content while the absorbed energy and deformation at rupture point increased for all size categories in both horizontal and vertical loading orientations. Also, seeds in the vertical orientation developed hull cracks at a higher level of force than those loaded in the horizontal orientation. However, for the kernels it was the opposite. In addition, the average forces required to cause kernel rupture were lower （11.64-39.9 N） than those required to rupture the seed （30.06-117.46 N） in both orientations. Seeds loaded in a vertical orientation absorbed more energy （87.67 mJ） prior to rupture than those loaded in the horizontal （46.60 mJ） orientation. However, for the kernels it was the opposite.     

Analysis of Oleanolic Acid and Ursolic Acid,Potential Antifertility Agents in Moringa （Moringa oleifera） Seed

Oleanolic acid （OA） and ursolic acid （UA） are isomeric tritcrpenes that are difficult to separate chromatographically. Studies have indicated that both OA and UA have antifertility properties in several livestock species, suppressing attainment of puberty, gonad function and gamete production. Being able to determine the presence and quantity of the OA and UA in moringa and pawpaw seeds will allow for calculation of optimal inclusion levels of these acids in animal diets for antifertility-activity. The purpose of the study was thus to quantify the levels of OA and UA in Moringa and pawpaw seed powder by means of ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry （UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS）. Only OA was detected in moringa seeds at a concentration level of 0.508 p.g/g ＋ 0.032 pg/g dry weight. UA and OA could not be detected in pawpaw seeds used in this study. The presence of OA in moringa seeds suggest that the seeds can be included in tilapia diets as a potential antifertility treatment to control precocious breeding in tilapia culture in small scale farming systems in Sub-Saharan Africa. Further studies are warranted to determine the levels of OA and UA composition in moringa seeds from other parts of the Sub-Saharan Africa （other than Zambia）.     

Proteomic Analysis of Wheat Seed in Response to Drought Stress

Drought stress is one of the major factors affecting in wheat yield and grain quality. In order to investigate how drought stress might influence wheat quality during grain filling, three wheat cultivars Gaocheng 8901, Jagger and Nongda 3406 were subjected to drought stress during the grain filling stage. Neither globulin and glutenin, nor the relative percentage ofamylose significantly changed following drought treatments, whereas albumin and gliadin concentrations did. The SDS-sedimentation, which has a strong linear correlation with wheat baking quality was markedly decreased following drought stress. These results indicated that drought had an adverse effect on wheat qualit3,. In order to investigate the protein complexes in the wheat flour, the data from native PAGE and SDS-PAGE were combined and a total of 14 spots were successfully identified, and of these eight protein types were determined to be potential complex forming proteins.     

Under-Winter Sowings of Red Beetroot in Uzbekistan

The results of the three-year researches which had the purpose to establish an optimum depth of seeding at sowing and rational norm of seeding of red beetroot seeds at under-winter sowing in conditions of mid-loamy typical grey soils of the central climatic zone of Uzbekistan are stated in article. The researches were spent at statement of field experiences in quadruple frequency with the area of a registration allotment 10 M^-1. Crops were carried out in the first decade of December against mulching surfaces of ridges by humus and without mulching. Crops were carried out on ridges in width of 70 sm tape-two-lined with distance between tapes of 50 sm, between lines-20 sm and distance between plants in a line of 12-13 sm, at density of standing of 228-230 thousand plants/hectares. Experiences were spent with zoned in Uzbekistan multi-seedling grade of a red beetroot ＂Bordo 237＂. Experiences were accompanied by phenological supervision, biometric accounts, the account of field germination of seeds, density of standing of plants and definition of size and quality of a crop. Results of researches were exposed to the statistical analysis by a dispersive method. It has been revealed that at under-winter sowing of a red beetroot the effective way providing acceleration of shoots occurrence, formations of high-grade density of standing and increase of productivity of root crops is mulching the surfaces of ridges by humus. It is defined that optimum depth of seeding at sowing both at application of mulching and without it is the depth of seeding 4 sm. It is established that the most rational norm of seeding of the seeds, providing high-grade density of standing, is at cultivation with application of mulching 8 kg/ha, and at cultivation without mulching 8-10 kg/ha. Application of mulching the surfaces of ridges by humus, depths of seeding of 4 sm and norms of seeding of seeds of 8-10 kg/ha in conditions of under-winter sowing in comparison with cultivation without mulching and depth of seeding 2 sm and norms of seeding of 6 kg/ha provides an acceleration of receipt of fresh production of a red beetroot for 12-14 days and considerably raises root crops productivity. Application of agro receptions improved by us is the important reserve of acceleration of receipt of red beetroot early production and increase of its manufacture.     

Variation of Soil and Water Volumes in Riparian Jungle Soils of Brazil

The objective of this work is to study the relation between humidity, density, porosity and shrinkage of the floodplain soil and riparian vegetation and their ability to store water. For this purpose, two locations for every type of soils were evaluated. Both were placed at the Agronomy University （Faculdade de Cidncias Agron6micas） in SAo Manuel, State of SAo Paulo, Brazil. The floodplain soil was vegetated with Southern Cattail （Typha domingensis）. In both places, soil samples were collected from several depths： 0, 30, 60 and 100 cm. Results show that lower soil density values （0.15 g/cm3） with organic texture and high porosities values （up to 86.2%） were found in samples with the highest organic material content in the floodplain soil. For this field experiment, flood plains soils （characterised as basin gley soils） presented high volumetric instability with a retratibility of 67.49% and higher water storage capacities compared to riparian stands soils （characterised as fluvic neosoils）.     

Influence of Cropping Systems on Soil Properties in Semi-arid Conditions of Setif, Algeria

The effects of two culture systems, conventional and no-till combined the previous crop （lentil and wheat） on soil properties were studied in the experimental site of the station Technical Institute for Field Crops （ITGC） Setif （Algeria） during the crop year 2011/2012. The results indicate that the no-till system affects positively the variables of soil properties and the organic matter has a rate of 2.89% compared to 2.44% in conventional tillage. If the conventional system has an infiltration of moisture relatively higher than that observed for no-till throughout the cycle, the no-tillage is distinguished by a higher storage of moisture at the end of cycle wheat cultivation. The results also indicate that the density （1.44 g/cm）, permeability （22.79 cm/h） and soil compaction （12.51 kg/cm） in no-till were significantly higher compared to conventional tillage 1.35 g/cm, 14.13 cm/h, 7.40 kg/cm, respectively.     

Challenges and Opportunities of On-farm Tree Planting as an Alternative Wood Source on Mt. Marsabit,Northern Kenya： Towards Mitigating Climate Change

Constraints and probable pathway towards increasing tree density and diversity within farmlands as a means of reducing human dependency on Mt. Marsabit forest for wood are addressed. The forest provides a carbon sink to counteract the risks and hazards associated with climate change. A structured questionnaire was administered to a sample of 205 respondents that were selected from a population of 3075 farming households using a systematic random sampling procedure. While majority of the farms （53%） had low tree density （1-10 trees）, only 8% of the farms had high density （≥ 20 trees）. About 50% and 15% farms had Grevelia robusta and Eucalyptus cammudelensis, which were grown for timber production, respectively. Broad leafed trees, like Croton megalocarpus and Moringa stenoptella had been established in 17% of the farmlands, respectively. With only 20% of the households having a fence around the crop fields, coupled by widely inter-household sharing of crop residues for grazing, tree browsing by livestock was a constraint to tree establishment. The challenges present an opportunity to establish governance structures and processes for communal responsibility and management of tree resources in the farms. A plausible approach entails the Adaptive Collaborative Management （ACM） as a process that facilitates to experiential learning and negotiation for probable actions and policies in management of natural resources.