Liming acidic waters in Norway: National policy and research and development

Since 1983, the Norwegian environmental authorities have given financial support to operational liming and research following recommendation given by the Norwegian Liming Project (1979–1984). Liming all acid waters in Norway would require an annual expenditure exceeding NOK (Norwegian Kroner) 300 × 10⁶. The funding level for 1988 is NOK 14 × 10⁶ and will probably increase to NOK 30 mill. by 1990, including NOK 1 to 3 mill. for research and development. Priority is given to lakes and rivers whose fishing is open to the public, and to save or restore valuable fish populations. Local support in the form of voluntary labor is a condition for financial aid. Two salmon rivers are currently included in the program. T h e Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA) plays an important role in liming research and development in Norway. The aims of this research are twofold: to document the chemical and biological response to neutralization and liming, and to improve liming strategy to obtain cost efficient liming activities.     

Monitoring fish stocks in relation to acidification in Norwegian watersheds

The Norwegian Monitoring Programme for Long-Range Transported Air Pollutants started in 1980. The biological part of this programme includes besides invertebrate studies in streams, (i) fish community status in lakes by means of interviews, test-fishing in lakes by using standard gill-net series, recruitment studies of brown trout in inland streams, and juvenile stock assess and monitoring of fish kills in salmon rivers. Damaged fish stocks are recognized within a land area of 51,500 km² in southern Norway and 30 km² in northern Norway. At least 6,000 lake-dwelling fish stocks have either been lost or are at various stages of reduction. Brown trout (Salmo trutta) is the most widespread and abundant species of fish in Norwegian watersheds, and is also most severe affected by acidification. More recently, there are some indications of an increase in the abundance of brown trout in some areas. However, analysis of age structure in lakes, and fry densities in streams in such areas revealed large annual variations in recruitment rate, which indicates unstable water chemical conditions. Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is virtually extinct in 25 rivers in southernmost, southwestern and western Norway.     

Acidification in Norway — Status and trends biological monitoring — Improvements in the invertebrate fauna

The Norwegian monitoring programme of acidification include studies of invertebrates, which started in 1981. The invertebrate programme is based on kick samples from a fixed station net in 8 river systems. The stations include tributaries as well as stations in the main river. This paper deals with three rivers located in a gradient covering the range of acidic deposition in West Norway. The invertebrates are identified to species level and sorted with respect to acid sensitive and acid tolerant species, used for stating an acidification index. The spring samples generally show the highest acidification due to release of acids during snow smelt. In fall the acidity was lower and the index was less variable. A significant increase in the acidification index (reduced acidity) was recorded during fall in the period 1989 – 94 in two of the watersheds. In the third watershed no significant trend was recorded. During the years 1982 – 1988 a significant increase in the index occurred in spring in the watershed with lowest acidic deposition. The increases observed in the index is probably a result of the reductions in acid deposition in Norway.     

ICP Waters — an International Programme for Surface Water Monitoring

The International Cooperative Programme on Assessment and Monitoring of Acidification of Rivers and Lakes (ICP Waters) was established in July 1985 under the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN/ECE) Executive Body of the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP). The Programme Centre is at the Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Oslo. The main aim of the Programme is to assess, on a regional basis, the degree and geographical extent of acidification of surface waters. 23 countries in Europe and North America participate on a regular basis. The major findings in the programme cover (1) regional trends in water chemistry related to changes in S- and N-deposition, (2) dose/response relationships particularly between biology (invertebrates) and water chemistry (acidification status), (3) effects of acidification on aquatic fauna, (4) implications for the assessment of critical loads, and (5) nitrogen leaching. Both chemical and biological intercalibrations and intercomparisons are important parts of the programme activities.     

挪威大西洋鲑鱼工业化养殖现状及对中国的启示

挪威大西洋鲑鱼养殖起步于20世纪60年代,通过建立养殖许可证、最大生物许可量、环境信号灯等制度和规则,经过将近60 a的发展,目前已跃居成为全球大西洋鲑鱼第一大主产国。统计结果显示,2018年挪威养殖大西洋鲑鱼出口量110万t,出口额82.3亿美元;总销售量中Salmar、Cermaq、Marine Harvest等十大养殖企业占比63.9%;全国海上养殖场数量共986个,繁育和养殖从业人员共7499人。挪威大西洋鲑鱼养殖是陆海接力工业化生产的典型代表。从亲本产卵到规格苗种培育阶段主要采用循环水方式在陆基工厂化养殖车间内完成,然后转运至海上养殖场利用深水网箱进行养成。随着近岸水质和气候环境的变化以及对生产作业和管理更高的要求,挪威大西洋鲑养殖业正经历着从开放式网箱养殖向封闭式网箱、从近岸养殖朝深远海养殖发展的阶段。中国海水鱼养殖产业存在产业组织化程度低、养殖品种多样化、主养模式与产业技术亟待升级等问题。借鉴挪威大西洋鲑鱼养殖产业发展中碰到的问题和采取的对策,提出中国海水鱼养殖业发展应提高行业准入门槛,加强过程监督和环境影响评估;尽快建立针对不同养殖品种的市场发展策略,加快渔业结构升级转型;引进水产苗种工业化繁育技术体系;拓展深远海,建立陆海统筹的养殖新模式等建议。     

A presentation of the Norwegian project ‘Acid precipitation — Effects on forest and fish’

The joint research project, ‘Acid Precipitation — Effects on Forest and Fish‘ (the SNSF-project) of the Agricultural Research Council of Norway and the Norwegian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research was started in 1972. The objectives of the project are to: (1) establish as precisely as possible the effects of acid precipitation on forest and freshwater fish; and (2) investigate the effects of air pollutants on soil, vegetation, and water, required to satisfy point 1. Research activities on the project are organized and carried out mainly at four institutes. Within and between these institutes groups are formed carrying out investigations in fields including atmospheric transport and chemistry, dry deposition and leaching of foliage, forest growth, soil biology and soil chemistry, hydrological relationships of peatland, hydrobiology with special stress on fish, and hydrochemistry including snow chemistry.     

Improvements in Water Quality and Aquatic Ecosystems Due to Reduction in Sulphur Deposition in Norway

A program for monitoring acidification in Norway was developed in 1980. The program included water chemistry, fish and invertebrates. The monitoring have been performed in areas with strong as well as low acidification. Information about the status of the fauna is regularly obtained from sites covering both affected and unaffected areas. Tolerance limits for different species have been established and used for the evaluation of changes in acidification since the early eighties. A significant improvement in water chemistry was recorded in accordance with a 45 to 70 % reduction in sulphur deposition. The invertebrate monitoring shows recovery of sensitive species, and watersheds with earlier low damage have probably returned to an unaffected status. In the most acidified areas also significant improvements are noted, especially during the last ten years. However, acidic episodes connected with sea-salt deposition and spring snowmelt are found to confound the recovery process in these naturally low buffered systems.     

Childhood diet in relation to Sámi and Norwegian ethnicity in northern and mid-Norway--the SAMINOR study

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this work was to identify dietary patterns in the past using cluster analysis of reported diet in childhood, and to assess predictors for dietary patterns in relation to ethnicity in the population in the Sámi core areas in Norway. The Sámis are an indigenous population living in the border areas of Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia. DESIGN: Population-based, cross-sectional study, using self-administered questionnaires. A food-frequency questionnaire covering selected food items eaten in childhood was used. The questionnaire also provided data on ethnicity. SUBJECTS AND SETTING: This study was based on data collected from 7614 subjects participating in The Population Based Study of Health and Living Conditions in Areas with a Mixed Sámi and Norwegian Population (the SAMINOR study) who grew up in the SAMINOR geographical areas, i.e. areas with mixed Sámi and Norwegian populations in Norway. RESULTS: Four dietary clusters were identified: a reindeer meat cluster; a cluster with high intakes of fish, traditional fish products and mutton, in addition to food sources from the local environment; a Westernised food cluster with high intakes of meat balls and sausages; and a cluster with a high intake of fish, but not any other foods in the questionnaire. The cluster distribution differed by ethnicity, but the effect of ethnicity on diet differed by coastal and inland residence. CONCLUSION: Our study has shown that data gathered through the limited questionnaire could be used to group the study sample into different dietary clusters, which we believe will be useful for further research on relationships between diet in childhood and health in the Sámi core areas in Norway.     

Harvest regimen optimization and essential oil production in five tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L.) genotypes under a northern climate

Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L.) was cultivated at the Norwegian Crop Research Institute at the Apelsvoll Research Centre, Division Kise, in the period from 2000 to 2001. The study focused on different harvesting regimens for high biomass production and essential oil (EO) yield and quality. Two tansy genotypes from Canada (Richters and Goldsticks) and three Norwegian genotypes (Steinvikholmen, Alvdal, and Brumunddal) were studied. The Canadian genotypes reached a height of 130-145 cm and showed a higher dry weight of aerial plant parts compared to the Norwegian plants in 2000. Similar oil yields could be observed for the Canadian types and genotype Steinvikholmen in the range of 30.8-34.6 L/ha when the plants were harvested twice during budding and before flowering after regrowth (year 2001). In contrast, single harvesting at the full bloom stage resulted in higher oil yields, between 42.1 and 44.5 L/ha (Canadian genotypes), whereas 21.0-38.4 L/ha was obtained from the Norwegian types. Tansy genotypes could be grouped into the following chemotypes: the mixed chemotypes Steinvikholmen (thujone-camphor), Alvdal (thujone-camphor-borneol), Goldsticks (thujone-camphor-chrysanthenyl type), and Brumunddal (thujone-camphor-1,8-cineole-bornyl acetate/borneol-alpha-terpineol) and the distinct chemotype Richters, with average concentrations of (E)-chrysanthenyl acetate >40% in both leaf and flower EO.     

Reappearance of Highly Acid-Sensitive Invertebrates After Liming of an Alpine Lake Ecosystem

The amphipod Gammarus lacustris was earlier a main food item of brown trout in Lake Svartavatnet at the Hardangervidda mountain plateau in South Norway. In the middle of the 1980's, G. lacustris disappeared from the trout diet due to increased acidification. In order to preserve a unique genetic variant of brown trout living in the area, a liming programme was initiated in 1994. During the first years after liming, G. lacustris was absent both in fish stomachs and in lake littoral samples. In 1999, it reappeared in brown trout stomach samples together with two other strongly sensitive species, the tadpole shrimp Lepidurus arcticus and the freshwater gastropod Lymnaea peregra. Data from monitoring indicate that the water chemical conditions of L. Svartavatnet are still close to the critical limits of these animals. They have probably survived in small refuges of acceptable water quality, either in areas of inflowing groundwater or in the littoral, below the more acidic surface layer. The fact that these sensitive animals have not yet been found in benthic samples emphasise fish diet as an important tool in early registration of the presence/absence of invertebrates with low abundance or patchy distribution.     

Liming of acidified lakes and rivers in Norway

Acidification is one of the most serious environmental problems in Norway. International agreements to reduce emissions are the only acceptable solution to the acidification problem. The “Sulphur Protocol”, signed in Oslo in 1994, will certainly improve matters, but southern Norway will have large acidified areas for decades. Norwegian environmental authorities therefore carry out liming as a temporary alleviatory measure to reduce damage for freshwater ecosystems. In 1995, about NOK 92 mill, was spent on liming. Acidification has wiped out the salmon in 25 rivers, and they are threatened in another 28 rivers. Because of varying water flow and rapidly changing water quality, liming a Norwegian salmon river is a huge operation demanding sophisticated equipment. Eleven rivers carrying anadromous fish are being limed in 1995. The largest is the River Audna where liming has meant that a salmon stock could be reintroduced. Most rivers are limed using automatic lime dosers. The most sophisticated ones control the amount of lime using pH sensors and water flow to neutralize major episodes of acidic water flow, which regularly occur in Norwegian rivers.     

Forty years of soil research funded by the European Commission: Trends and future. A systematic review of research projects

The European Green Deal with its high ambition has set the European Union (EU) on a promising path towards greater soil protection. The EU Soil Strategy 2030, the Biodiversity Strategy 2030, the Farm to Fork Strategy, the Zero Pollution, the Nature Restoration Law and the European Climate Law, among others, include actions to protect our soils. Research and Innovation (R&I) will play a key role in developing new knowledge and tools enabling the transition to healthy soils. The main aim of this paper is to analyse past and near-future trends in EU's funding for R&I on soil-related issues. For this purpose, a review of EU-funded soil projects was conducted based on the data available in the Community Research and Development Information Service and the official portal for European data. Our analysis shows that over the past 40 years, the EU has invested significantly in developing integrated knowledge about the relationships between soil functions and ecosystem services and how human-induced pressures affect soil health. Following the adoption of the EU Soil Thematic Strategy in 2006, there was an increase in research funding for soil-related research. Furthermore, our analysis also illustrates an interesting interplay of permanent and changing soil themes. The Horizon Europe Mission ‘A Soil Deal for Europe’, which aims to establish a network of 100 living labs and lighthouses to lead the transition towards healthy soils and safeguard human and planetary health by 2030, provides a further incentive for soil research. Together with the EU Soil Strategy 2030 and the new proposal for a Directive on Soil Monitoring and Resilience (Soil Monitoring Law), and the EU Soil Observatory (EUSO), the three instruments set up the political framework, concrete measures, and a monitoring system needed for the protection, restoration and sustainable use of soils.     

Multi-trophic consequences of kelp harvest

Coastal kelp forest ecosystems provide important habitats for a diverse assemblage of invertebrates, fish and marine top-predators such as seabirds and sea mammals. Although kelp is harvested industrially on a worldwide scale little is known about the multi-trophic consequences of this habitat removal. We investigated how kelp fisheries, which remove feeding and nursery grounds of coastal fish, influence local food webs and the availability of food to a marine top predator, the great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo). We conducted experimental harvesting of the canopy-forming kelp (Laminaria hyperborea) during a 3 year period (2001-2003) in an area at the coast of Central Norway while synoptically monitoring fish occurrence and cormorant foraging parameters. Our results demonstrate that cormorants preferentially foraged within kelp-forested areas and performed significantly more dives when feeding in harvested versus un-harvested areas suggesting lower foraging yield in the former case. In kelp areas that were newly harvested the number of small (<15 cm) gadid fish was 92% lower than in un-harvested areas. This effect was persistent for at least 1 year following harvest. To our knowledge, this is the first time that the ecological consequences of kelp harvesting have been tested at a multi-trophic level. The results presented strongly suggest that kelp harvesting affects fish abundance and diminishes coastal seabird foraging efficiency. Kelp fisheries are currently managed in order to maximize the net harvest of kelp biomass, and the underlying effects on the ecosystems are partly ignored. This study calls for re-assessment of such management practices.     

Gas-liquid chromatographics determination of Bayer 73 in fish, aquatic invertebrates, mud, and water

A gas-liquid chromatographic (GLC) method is described for determining residues of Bayer 73 (2-aminoethanol salt of 2',5-dichloro-4'-nitrosalicylanilide) in fish muscle, aquatic invertebrates, mud, and water by analyzing for 2-chloro-4-nitroaniline (CNA), a hydrolysis product of Bayer 73. Bayer 73 residues are extracted from fish muscle tissue, invertebrates, and mud with acetone-formic acid (98+2), and partitioned from water samples with chloroform. After sample cleanup by solvent and acid-base partitioning, the concentrated extract is hydrolyzed with 2N NaOH and H2O2 for 10 min at 95 degrees C. The CNA is then partitioned into hexane-ethyl ether (7+3) and determined by electron capture GLC. Average recoveries were 88% for fish, 82% for invertebrates, 82% for mud, and 98% for water at 3 or more fortification levels.     

Long-Term Ecological Effects of Liming — The Iselaw Programme

The Swedish liming programme was initiated in 1977 to counteract the effects of anthropogenic acidification on aquatic ecosystems until the acid deposition has been reduced. Ecosystem development in limed waters has been followed since 1989 in a programme for integrated studies of the effects of liming acidified waters (ISELAW). The main objectives are to assess a) the long-term ecological effects of liming, b) to what extent ecosystems recover to a pre-acidification state, and c) to elucidate possible detrimental effects of lime treatment. The programme comprises monitoring of water chemistry, phyto- and zooplankton, vegetation, benthic invertebrates and fish in 13 limed and 5 non-limed lakes, and 12 limed and 10 non-limed streams. Paleolimnological studies are performed to reveal pre-acidification lake history. The results show that lime treatment detoxifies the water, although chemical and biological development varies among and within sites. In general the long-term changes are small compared to the initial changes associated with first treatment. Water chemical changes over time are reflected as reduced sulfur concentrations and increased nitrogen concentrations. Treated ecosystems seem not to recover fully to the situation before acidification, and due to re-colonization failure, several species are lacking in the limed waters.     

Atlantic Salmon and Acidification in Southern Norway: A Disaster in the 20th Century, but a Hope for the Future?

Due to acidification, 18 Norwegian stocks of Atlantic salmon are extinct and an additional 8 are threatened. In the two southernmost counties, salmon is eradicated. Due to the high acid sensitivity, production of salmon was greatly reduced as early as 1920, several decades before acid rain was recognized as an environmental problem. International agreements on reduced atmospheric emissions will reduce acidification effects in Norway substantially during the coming 20 to 50 years. However, the extreme acid sensitivity of salmon makes the destiny of this species in Southern Norway uncertain. Liming is an effective measure to protect and restore fish populations in acidified waters. Liming of acidified salmon rivers has become important in Norway in recent years which in combination with reduced emissions will be an important contribution to protection of the Atlantic salmon species. In this paper we give an overview of the effects of acidification on Norwegian salmon and discuss different aspects of mitigation measures; the expected effect of international agreements on reduced atmospheric emissions, the expected effect of liming on salmon production and the possibilities of re-establishing self sustaining salmon stocks in limed rivers.     

Acid deposition and effects in Nordic Europe. Damage to fish populations in Scandinavia continue to apace

Although the decline in fish populations due to acidicwater in Norway started as early as in the 1920's the most rapid losses appeared during the 1960–70's. Until 1978, the populations of Atlantic salmon had disappeared from the southernmost part of Norway, and in these areas, more than half of the brown trout populations had been lost. Today, in spite of no increase in acid depositions, the fishery problems seems to continue at the same speed. Data based on interviews of the local fish authority shows that lakes still holding a fish population in the late 70's, have experienced a 30% loss of brown trout populations and a 12% loss of perch in the period 1978–1983. This trend have been confirmed by testfishing in lake systems having long data series. Salmon rivers on the western coast of Norway have experienced several episodes of fish kills due to rapid changes in water quality. These fish kills have mainly affected smolts of Atlantic salmon. Spawning migrating salmon on entering their acidified home river have also been affected. In Sweden, several salmon populations along the western coast have been lost due to acidification with no positive trends so far in the 1980's. Areas in central Sweden and in some high mountain areas are still experiencing a continuous and increasing acidification with detrimental effects on invertebrates and fish. In Finland, an increase in acidic deposition during the last decades have occurred, leading to acidification in the most sensitive freshwater systems. Although some acidified freshwater lakes are reported to have lost their fish stocks, few data on fish population effects are available.     

Effects of Acidification Due to Emissions from the Kola Peninsula on Fish Populations in Lakes Near the Russian Border in Northern Norway

In this paper we document the effects of acidification on fish populations in lakes in Sør-Varanger near the Russian border in northern Norway. We used questionnaires in order to assess the current status and distribution of different fish species, and conducted test-fishing to determine relative abundance (CPUE-T) and age structure. Acidification of surface waters in this area is due to emissions of SO₂ from smelters on the Kola Peninsula in Russia (Nikel and Zapoljarnij) between 10 and 30 km from the Norwegian border. Sulphur deposition in Sør-Varanger ranges from 0.6 to 2.0 g S m-² yr-¹, which is similar to levels in the most acidified areas in southern Norway. However, a dominant fraction of the acidic deposition reaches the ground in particulate form during summer and autumn. Coastal areas in Sør-Varanger receive small amounts of precipitation; the annual mean is 580 mm. We obtained fish status from 401 lakes, about 40% of all lakes larger than 3 ha, which were inhabited by 236 and 293 populations of Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) and brown trout (Salmo trutta), respectively. The extent of fish damage was small as only three populations of Arctic charr were lost, while three populations of Arctic charr and eight populations of brown trout were at various stages of reduction. Damaged and lost fish populations were identified in smaller lakes at relatively high elevations (172–349 m) in six areas in the Jarfjord Mountains, covering a land area of 30.0 km². Most of the damage probably occurred during the 1970s and 1980s. In lakes that supported or had supported Arctic charr and brown trout, we found a significant relationship between CPUE-T, and acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) and pH, and also between alkalinity and the concentration of inorganic Al for brown trout. In both species, the catch of fish in age groups 1+ and 2+ (CPUE-R) increased significantly with CPUE-T. Affected populations typically exhibited irregular age composition, and age-classes were missing, indicating that reductions in fish populations were due to recruitment failure. The limited fish damage is related to relatively good catchment resistance to acidic inputs, small amounts of wet deposition as well as precipitation. These conditions result in low accumulation of acidic compounds, producing less acidic run-off waters and few episodes of unfavourable water quality.     

The seven impediments in invertebrate conservation and how to overcome them

Despite their high diversity and importance for humankind, invertebrates are often neglected in biodiversity conservation policies. We identify seven impediments to their effective protection: (1) invertebrates and their ecological services are mostly unknown to the general public (the public dilemma); (2) policymakers and stakeholders are mostly unaware of invertebrate conservation problems (the political dilemma); (3) basic science on invertebrates is scarce and underfunded (the scientific dilemma); (4) most species are undescribed (the Linnean shortfall); (5) the distribution of described species is mostly unknown (the Wallacean shortfall); (6) the abundance of species and their changes in space and time are unknown (the Prestonian shortfall); (7) species ways of life and sensitivities to habitat change are largely unknown (the Hutchinsonian shortfall).Numerous recent developments in taxonomy, inventorying, monitoring, data compilation, statistical analysis and science communication facilitate overcoming these impediments in both policy and practice. We suggest as possible solutions for the public dilemma: better public information and marketing. For the political dilemma: red-listing, legal priority listing and inclusion in environmental impact assessment studies. For the scientific dilemma: parataxonomy, citizen science programs and biodiversity informatics. For the Linnean shortfall: biodiversity surrogacy, increased support for taxonomy and advances in taxonomic publications. For the Wallacean shortfall: funding of inventories, compilation of data in public repositories and species distribution modeling. For the Prestonian shortfall: standardized protocols for inventorying and monitoring, widespread use of analogous protocols and increased support for natural history collections. For the Hutchinsonian shortfall: identifying good indicator taxa and studying extinction rates by indirect evidence.     

Acid deposition from the Russian Kola Peninsula: Are sensitive fish populations in north-eastern Finnish Lapland affected?

Sulphur emissions from Russian Kola Peninsula smelters are known to cause surface water acidification in the border areas between Norway and Russia. The sulphur deposition is also high in the eastern part of Finnish Lapland. In 1990, a monitoring programme was started to survey the effects of acid deposition on sensitive fish populations in north-eastern Finnish Lapland. Altogether 103 sites in three areas were electrofished and autumn water samples were taken. Besides the brown trout (Salmo trutta), special attention was paid to the occurrence of minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus) since it is a common species in small waters and is highly sensitive to acidification. During the first three years of monitoring no signs of acidification were recorded. The alkalinity values of brooks generally exceeded 0.1 mmol/1. Brown trout, minnow and burbot (Lota lota) were caught frequently in the study sites. Later the study was focused on the uninhabited Vätsäri area which is receiving the highest sulphur deposition in Finnish Lapland. The alkalinity values of the sampled brooks were in most cases below 0.05 mmol/1, indicating a decreased buffer capacity. However, the electrofishing of the brooks showed no acid-induced damage. The lowest alkalinity values were detected from a group of small upland ponds. In four such ponds the alkalinity was zero or negative. No minnows were caught from these four ponds apart from one, where the minnows were exceptionally large. The results show that the waters near the eastern border of northern Finnish Lapland are threatened by acidification. No damage to fish populations subject to fishing was observed. The absence of minnows in some small waters is possibly the first sign of acid-induced fish population damage.