Relationships between blacking phenomenon and norlignans of sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) heartwood III: Coloration of norlignans with alkaline treatment

We investigated norlignan coloration with alkaline treatment to clarify the relationship between the blackening of sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) heartwood and norlignans in the heartwood. Of the four main norlignans (agatharesinol, sequirin-C, sugiresinol, hydroxysugiresinol) of sugi heartwood, only sequirin-C was clearly colored with alkaline treatment (0.4% potassium hydrogencarbonate solution, pH 8.6). Sequirin-C changed color to deep purple with alkaline treatment. The absorbance spectrum of colored sequirin-C had two peaks (450 and 525nm) and one shoulder (626nm). Coloration began at pH 6.2.). The spectrum of blackened sugi heartwood was similar to that of sequirin-C treated with alkali. A catechol nucleus and a double bond conjugated with a benzene nucleus play important roles in norlignan coloration with alkaline treatment. The number of hydroxyl groups is related to solubility in alkaline solution, and, therefore, whether a norlignan changes color also depends on the number of hydroxyl groups. Based on these results, we concluded that sugi heartwood turns black because sequirin-C, which is readily soluble in alkaline solution and can form a large intramolecular conjugation system when alkalized, is converted to products with a deep purple color as the heartwood is basified.     

醋酸水溶液处理对杉树材影响

为了研究醋酸水溶液处理给杉树材重量带来的变化,使用醋酸水溶液对杉树材进行了处理。结果发现处理后杉树材重量的减小量大约等于抽出物的重量,而且随着醋酸水溶液浓度的增加而增加。利用傅立叶变换红外光谱法对处理后的杉树材及抽出物进行了光谱分析。从处理后杉树材的光谱图可以观察到3400cm-1附近的OH伸缩振动及1510cm-1附近的木质素中苯环C=C伸缩振动的吸收强度有增加倾向。从醋酸水溶液抽出物光谱图可以发现用浓度30%醋酸水溶液处理时木质素被溶出。图2表2参6。     

冷冻处理对日本柳杉边材炭化的影响

将冷冻处理前后的日本柳杉边材在 4 0 0℃下进行炭化 ,得到了木醋液、木焦油和木炭。与没有处理相比 ,虽然处理过边材的木焦油的收率几乎不变 ,木醋液的收率显示增加倾向 ,但是木炭的收率有减少迹象。用毛细管气相色谱法对得到的木醋液中的 11种成分进行了定量分析。与无处理相比较后 ,发现处理过边材木醋液中的甲醇、脂肪酸及糠醛 (呋喃甲醛 )的收量有了变化 ,但是 5 -羟甲基糠醛、麦芽酚、苯酚、邻苯二酚及愈创苯酚的收量几乎没有变化。     

Induction of the biosynthesis of agatharesinol, a norlignan, in sapwood sticks of Cryptomeria japonica under humidity-regulated circumstances

To establish an experimental approach for studying the biosynthetic pathway of agatharesinol, a norlignan, induction of the formation of agatharesinol in Cryptomeria japonica (Japanese cedar, sugi) was attempted. Wood sticks were prepared from the sapwood immediately after cutting a sugi tree down, and they were allowed to stand in desiccators in which the humidity was adjusted to 76% and 88%, and in a room. When the wood sticks were allowed to stand in 76% humidity and in a room, they dried rapidly and no formation of agatharesinol was demonstrated by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. These results suggest that in the sapwood dried rapidly, the cells that were biologically active in the sapwood, probably ray parenchyma cells, die rapidly and completely before the biosyntheses of secondary metabolites including agatharesinol was wholly established. The wood sticks allowed to stand in 88% humidity, on the other hand, dried gradually compared with the sticks placed in 76% humidity and in a room, and agatharesinol was formed as one of the predominant ethyl acetate extractives. These results suggest that delaying the drying of the sapwood sticks can control the dying period to an appropriate length for the ray parenchyma cells, during which the biosynthesis of agatharesinol is induced. Part of this study was presented at the 54th Annual Meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, Sapporo, August 2004     

不同岩性土体对日本柳杉生长影响试验初报

通过对黔中地区6种不同岩性土壤进行栽种日本柳杉的实验研究,其初步结果表明,不同岩性土体对日本柳杉的生长发育产生了一定影响。日本柳杉在6种不同土体上的成活率,在煤系砂页岩上较好达88.33%,而在灰质白云岩较差。高生长则在灰质白云岩和煤系砂页岩上长势略好于其它岩性的土壤,但并没有产生显著的差异。地径的生长在不同岩性的土壤上产生了显著差异。     

Stem volume models for Cryptomeria japonica of Jeju Island,Korea

The accurate estimation of the stem volume of trees is an important task for forest managers. Two common variables used in stem volume models are the diameter at breast height (DBH) and the total height of a tree. These two variables can be used together, or only the DBH can be used. The present study was conducted to develop a simple volume model for Cryptomeria japonica found in Jeju Island, South Korea. The performance of six models using only the DBH and using both the DBH and total height as variables were evaluated. Fit statistics including coefficient of determination (R²), standard error of the estimate (SEE), mean bias (ē), absolute mean difference (AMD), Akaike information criterion (AIC), and Akaike weight (AIC_w) were used to evaluate the models. Lack-of-fit statistics were also used for further evaluation. The results showed that the models using the DBH and total height as variables performed better than the models using only the DBH as a variable.     

Effect of forest thinning on soil net nitrogen mineralization and nitrification in a Cryptomeria japonica plantation in Taiwan

We investigated the effect of forest thinning on soil nitrogen mineralization, nitrification and transformation in a Cryptomeria japonica plantation at high elevation to provide basic data for forest management. We chose four study plots for control, light, medium and heavy thinning treatment, and three sub-plots for buried bag studies at similar elevations in each treatment plot to measure the net N mineralization and nitrification rates in situ. The contents of soil inorganic N(ammonium and nitrate) were similar between treatments, but all varied with season, reaching maxima in September 2003 and 2004. The seasonal maximum net Nmin rates after four treatments were 0.182, 0.246, 0.303 and 0.560 mg·kg-1·d-1 in 2003, and 0.242,0.258,0.411 and 0.671 mg·kg-1·d-1in 2004, respectively. These estimates are approximate with the lower annual rates of N mineralization for this region. Forest thinning can enhance net N mineralization and microbial biomass carbon. The percentage of annual rates of Nmin for different levels of forest thinning compared with the control plot were 13.4%, 59.8% and 154.2% in 2003, and 0.1%, 58.8% and 157.7% in 2004 for light, medium, and heavy thinning, respectively. These differences were related to soil moisture, temperature, precipitation, and soil and vegetation types. Well-planned multi-site comparisons, both located within Taiwan and the East-Asia region, could greatly improve our knowledge of regional patterns in nitrogen cycling.     

Hybrid drying with high-frequency heating and hot air under atmospheric pressure IV: water movement in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cryptomeria japonica</Emphasis> wood during high-frequency heating

 The relations among internal temperature, internal pressure, and moisture content distribution in sugi square lumber during high-frequency (HF) heating were determined to clarify the mechanism of water movement during the combination of HF heating and hot air exposure. Green sugi square lumbers were subjected to HF heating under atmospheric pressure. The water movement and pathways in the lumber during HF heating were also investigated. Results showed that internal pressure is the driving force of water movement. HF heating causes a rise in the internal temperature and internal pressure in sugi square lumber. Ordinarily, water in lumber evaporates from the surfaces of lumber during hot air drying. However, with HF heating the internal pressure is generated by the increased temperature, and liquid water is driven not only parallel to the grain but also perpendicular to the grain of the lumber. The ratio of the amount of liquid flow in the parallel and perpendicular directions ranged from 2 : 3 to 1 : 3. When the movement of water in the lumber was traced with a 0.5% aqueous solution of acid fuchsin, water was found to move through the lumber in the longitudinal direction and then flow in a direction perpendicular to the grain or in the radial and tangential directions. Received: June 15, 2001 / Accepted: February 8, 2002 Acknowledgment The authors thank Dr. O.R. Pulido, Institute of Wood Technology, Akita Prefectural University, for discussions and for proofreading this paper. Part of this research was presented at the 51st Annual Meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, Tokyo, April 2001 Correspondence to:Y. Kawai     

Antimicrobial activity of heartwood components of sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) against several fungi and bacteria

Methanol extract of sawdust of sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) heartwood was fractionated with toluene and n-hexane to give solvent-soluble and solvent-insoluble fractions. The n-hexane-soluble fraction showed the most inhibition activity among the fractions against phytopathogenic microorganisms, namely Fusarium oxysporum, Phytophthora capsici, Pythium splendens, and Ralstonia solanacearum. Sandaracopimarinol and ferruginol, isolated from the n-hexane-soluble fraction, showed moderate antifungal activity against the three fungi and strong antibacterial activity against R. solanacearum. The content of sandaracopimarinol (7.07 g/kg based on the dried sawdust) in the heartwood was about twice that of ferruginol. Sandaracopimarinol and ferruginol strongly inhibited the growth of Gram-positive bacteria but did not show inhibitory action against Gram-negative bacteria except for R. solanacearum. The antibacterial effect of sandaracopimarinol was first found in the present study and was stronger than that of ferruginol.     

Treatment of sugi （Cryptomeria japonica D.） sapwood with aqueous solution of acetic acid

Sugi sapwood samples were processed with aqueous solution of acetic acid in order to find the response of the weight of sugi sapwood and the treatment of aqueous solution of acetic acid. The result showed that loss of weight for the treated sugisapwood was about equal to yield of extracts from sugi sapwood, and increased with the increment of the concentration of aqueous solution of acetic acid. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy spectra changes of the treated sugi wood and extracts from sugi sapwood were analyzed by FT-IR spectroscopic technique. Increasing tendency of absorption intensities of the stretching vibration at 3 400 cm^-1 of hydroxyl group (OH) and C=C in lignin stretching vibration at 1510 cm^-1 of benzene ring inlignin were observed from FT-IR of the treated sugi sapwood. From FT-IR spectra of extracts from sugi sapwood by aqueoussolution of acetic acid, the dissolution of lignin was observed during the treatment with 30% acetic acid solution aqueous.     

Potassium distribution in black heartwood of sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) I: Localization in axial parenchyma cells

This is the first report to ascertain potassium location in black heartwood of sugi (Cryptomeria japonica). The objective of this study was to understand the distribution of potassium in sugi black heartwood in connection with anatomical morphology. Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM-EDXA) was used to investigate the distribution of inorganic elements, especially potassium. In black heartwood, potassium was detected in all tissues (tracheids, ray parenchyma, and axial parenchyma), but its concentrations were different in each xylem tissue. Potassium was particularly accumulated in the droplets in axial parenchyma cells. In addition, calcium was also detected in all tissues. Phosphorus sometimes existed in the granules in ray parenchyma cells. From optical microscopy, the axial parenchyma cells were observed to be arranged in a tangential direction on transverse section and the droplets in these cells were distributed in areas of high ash and green moisture content. For red heartwood, potassium detected by SEM-EDXA was far lower in all tissues than in the black heartwood, while the trend for calcium was the converse. Potassium in axial parenchyma cells was more abundant in black heartwood than in typical pale red heartwood.     

RAPD Marker Diversity Within and Among Natural Populations of the Clonal Tree Cryptomeria japonica D. Don.

Abstract

The Japanese cedar, Cryptomeria japonica D. Don., is one of the most important endemic species in Japan. A long history of heavy logging has resulted in natural populations being discontinuously distributed and scattered among small, restricted areas. An understanding of the patterns of genetic variability among and within populations of C. japonica is important for conserving the genetic resources of this economically important species. We studied genetic variation by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers in C. japonica of Kyoto prefecture, western Japan. A total of 398 plants sampled from six natural populations were analyzed by ten arbitrarily chosen decamer primers, resulting in 50 highly reproducible RAPD bands. Analysis of molecular variance partitionated the RAPD variation into the among- and within population components. The within-population component accounted for 93.75% of the variation. The among-population component accounted for only 6.25%. Indirect estimates of gene flow indicated that the average number of migrants exchanged among six populations per generation was 3.72. A Mantel test for each population did not yield significant correlations between geographic and genetic distances. The extent and distribution of C. japonica diversity in the Kyoto prefecture is in agreement with the conclusion that long-lived, wind-pollinated, out-crossing species with wide ranges retain a considerable amount of genetic diversity within populations and exhibit little genetic differentiation among populations.     

Estimating individual tree heights of sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) plantations in mountainous areas using small-footprint airborne LiDAR

Recently, it was shown that individual tree heights could be accurately estimated using small-footprint airborne light detection and ranging (LiDAR) remote sensing. Because most of the areas studied previously were limited to flat terrain, we investigated the accuracy of LiDAR-derived individual tree height estimates for different types of topographical features in mountainous forests with a steeper and more complex topography. Several middle-aged (40–50 years old) sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) plantations are found in the mountainous regions in Japan; hence, we chose 48-year-old sugi plantations to investigate the accuracy of these estimates. The surveyed area was divided into three types of topographical features; steep slope (mean slope ± SD; 37.6° ± 5.8°), gentle slope (15.6° ± 3.7°), and gentle yet rough terrain (16.8° ± 7.8°). Before estimating tree heights, the number of detected trees within each topographical feature was researched. In each of these terrains, the percentage of trees detected correctly was 74%, 86%, and 92%; the average error between LiDAR-derived and field-measured tree heights was 0.227m, –0.473m, and –0.183m; and the accuracy of the LiDAR-derived tree height estimates, given as root mean square error (RMSE), was 0.901m, 0.846m, and 0.576m, respectively. Consequently, the procedure presented in this study could detect most canopy trees and estimate individual tree heights with an accuracy better than 1m, even in a forest with a mean slope angle of approximately 38°; thus, indicating that small-footprint airborne LiDAR will be a useful tool for accurately estimating the heights of individual canopy trees in sugi plantations in mountainous areas.     

Spatiotemporal distribution of aboveground litter in a Cryptomeria japonica plantation

We assessed the vertical distribution of litter and its seasonal patterns in the canopy and on the forest floor (soil), as well as litterfall (the flux of litter from the canopy to the soil) in a 33-year-old plantation of Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don). The masses of total litter, dead leaves, and dead branches in the canopy of C. japonica trees averaged 34.09, 19.53, and 14.56 t dry wt ha⁻¹, respectively, and were almost constant during the study period. The total masses of the annual litterfall were 4.17 and 5.88 t dry wt ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ in the two consecutive years of the study. The mass of the soil litter averaged 7.95 t dry wt ha⁻¹ during the same period. All relationships between the mass of canopy litter and tree-size parameters (diameters at breast height and at the lowest living branch) were linear in a log-linear regression. Compared with the results for this plantation at a younger stage (16 years old), our results suggest that the total mass of dead leaves attached to each tree increases markedly with increasing age, but that the trajectory of this increase as a function of tree size may change from an exponential to a saturation curve with increasing stand age.     

利用RCR-RAPD法和同功酶分析法日本柳杉无性系的识别方法研究

以日本福岛县林业试验场日本柳杉种子园的 ２４个无性系为材料,利用 ＰＣＲ—ＲＡＰＤ法和同功酶分析法对日本柳杉无性系的识别方法进行了比较研究。结果显示：同功酶法和由７个标记构成的ＲＡＰＤ分析法不能完全识别２４个无性系,用１７个和２７个标记构成的ＲＡＰＤ分析法识别这２４个无性系是可能的;同功酶标记是一种基因型标记,具有稳定性高的特点,适合于分析遗传构造的相似程度,特别适合于群体遗传分析,但是,由于能获得清晰话带的同功酶种类有限,在用于个体识别上比较困难;ＲＡＰＤ标记是一种显性标记,稳定性较差,但只要反应体系和条件稳定,利用ＲＡＰＤ标记正确进行无性系识别是完全可能的。     

Species richness in sugi (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cryptomeria japonica</Emphasis> D. DON) plantations in southeastern Kyushu,Japan: the effects of stand type and age on understory trees and shrubs

 The species richness of trees, shrubs and climbing plants was investigated in 41 sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) plantations of different stand age and area in southern Kyushu, southwestern Japan. Altogether 174 species were found, of which 145 infrequent species were selected for analysis. Two groups were extracted from the species list according to their occurrence in older (49 spp.) or younger (28 spp.) stands, the latter containing a higher percentage of climbing plants and species with wind-dispersed seeds. In contrast, the older stand group contained major tree components typical of seminatural, evergreen broadleaved forests in the region and was more heavily dependent on stand age, especially for species with gravity- and frugivore-dispersed seeds, showing a gradual increase up to 60 years old. The species richness was less correlated with edge perimeter facing seminatural forests and the years after latest thinning. The juxtaposition of plantation compartments with stands of seminatural forest or other plantations, as well as the compartment's origin as former plantation site or a seminatural stand, had relatively little influence on species richness. However, topographic variation was important in determining the species composition, with valley stands having higher species richness and containing many plants typical of the regional seminatural forests. These results suggest that (1) the major trend of species richness is determined by the presence of old stand type species, (2) topographic variation of species richness remains even after establishment of plantations, and (3) the normal rotation period of sugi plantations (35–40 years) may therefore be too short to conserve the maximum potential species diversity within the working forest. Received: June 4, 2001 / Accepted: August 26, 2002 Acknowledgments We wish to thank the staff of the Miyazaki University Forests for cooperation in the fieldwork. A part of this study was supported by the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Study from the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture of Japan (no. 09041071 and no. 10460068). Correspondence to:S. Ito     

Cytological study of a male-sterile Cryptomeria japonica that does not release microspores from tetrads

To determine the mechanism of male-sterility Cryptomeria japonica tree Shindai3, the process of microspore development was observed under light and fluorescence microscopy. Microspore development in the Shindai3 was normal until the tetrad stage, but separation of the microspores from the tetrads was not observed even after callose had been degraded. In contrast to the microspore stage in a male-fertile tree, amorphous substances were observed around tetrads in the Shindai3, and the amount of the amorphous substance increased from the middle of November to the middle of December. The substances are hypothesized to prevent the separation of individual microspores from tetrads by inducing adhesion between microspore cells within the tetrad or enclosing the tetrads. The form of the tetrads in the Shindai3 was maintained until just before the pollen dispersal season, but they ultimately degenerated. The results of this study indicate that the mechanism causing male sterility in Shindai3 differs from that previously reported for other male-sterile trees of C. japonica.     

Evaluation of dried-wood odors: comparison between analytical and sensory data on odors from dried sugi (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cryptomeria japonica</Emphasis>) wood

The emissions of volatile organic compounds from air-dried, conventionally dried, and high-temperaturedried sugi wood were compared by gas chromatographymass spectrometry. Terpenes were clearly the main compound group in the air-dried wood samples, whereas acetic acid was only detected in the high-temperature-dried wood samples, indicating that considerable changes occurred in the volatile compound emission profile during hightemperature processing. The most abundant compounds in the air-dried wood and conventionally dried wood were δ-cadinene, α-muurolene, and β-cadinene (sesquiterpenes) for all specimens, and a-pinene and D-limonene (monoterpenes) for conventionally dried wood and air-dried wood. In contrast, acetic acid was detected only in the hightemperature-dried wood. Sensory evaluation of volatile organic compounds was performed by 18 male university students. Volatile compounds of air-dried wood and conventionally dried wood were assessed as being significantly more soothing than those from high-temperature-dried wood. This study was presented in part at the 57th Annual Meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, Hiroshima, August 2007     

Plus tree of Cryptomeria japonica D. Don with a heterozygous male-sterility gene

To find plus tree clones of Cryptomeria japonica that are heterozygous for a male-sterility gene (Aa), we crossed a homozygous male-sterile tree (aa) with 63 clones. Male sterility in this case is controlled by a recessive allele at a single gene locus and is expressed only in homozygotes. All F₁ seedlings obtained by crossing the male-sterile mother tree and 62 out of the 63 clones produced pollen. In contrast, F₁ seedlings obtained from the crossing between the male-sterile mother tree and a plus tree clone, Ohara 13, produced 64 male-sterile individuals and 52 fertile individuals. The segregation ratio fitted the expected 1 : 1 ratio according to a chi-square test. These results clearly demonstrate that the Ohara 13 clone is heterozygous for a male-sterility gene.     

Estimation of the fine root biomass in a Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) plantation using minirhizotrons

We estimated fine root biomass in a Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) plantation using a min-irhizotron technique. Since data obtained from minirhizo-trons are limited to the length and diameter of fine roots observed on minirhizotron tubes, data conversion is necessary to determine the fine root biomass per unit soil volume or unit stand area. We first examined the regression between diameter squared and weight per unit length of fine roots in soil core samples, and calculated the fine root biomass on minirhizotron tubes from their length and diameter. Then we determined conversion factors based on the ratio of the fine root biomass in soil core samples to that on minirhizotron tubes. We examined calculation methods, using a single conversion factor for total fine root biomass in the soil for depths of 0–40cm (Cal1), or using four conversion factors for fine roots in the soil at 10-cm intervals (Cal2). Cal1 overestimated fine root biomass in the lower soil or underestimated that in the upper soil, while fine root biomass calculated using Cal2 better matched that in soil core samples. These results suggest that minirhizotron data should be converted separately for different soil depths to better estimate fine root biomass.