毛乌素沙地人为干扰苔藓结皮的土壤水分和风蚀效应

[目的]为了探讨在毛乌素沙地人为干扰生物结皮的必要性与可行性,并为该区生物结皮的高效利用提供实验依据。[方法]在毛乌素沙地东南缘设置裸沙、苔藓结皮、干扰苔藓结皮、沙蒿、沙蒿+苔藓结皮以及沙蒿+干扰苔藓结皮6个处理小区,通过动态监测各小区土壤水分及风蚀变化过程,分析人为干扰苔藓结皮对土壤水分及风蚀过程的影响。[结果](1)沙地苔藓结皮能够显著提高浅层土壤含水量,降低深层土壤含水量。(2)人为干扰苔藓结皮会引起浅层土壤含水量的降低和降雨入渗深度的增加。(3)与裸沙对照相比,几种处理的减蚀效率大小顺序为:沙蒿+苔藓结皮(97.01%)沙蒿+干扰苔藓结皮(90.87%)苔藓结皮(89.63%)干扰苔藓结皮(69.50%)沙蒿(64.62%)。[结论]植被覆盖度较高时,对苔藓结皮进行适当破坏,能够在不加剧土壤风蚀的前提下,一定程度上改善土壤水分状况。而在无植被或低植被覆盖的地块,要禁止对苔藓结皮的干扰破坏。     

The effect of earthworms (Lumbricidae) on nitrogenase activity in soil

Summary Nitrogenase activity associated with earthworms, their faeces and activity in soil was measured by the acetylene reduction technique. A clear increase in nitrogenase activity was found in field-deposited casts of Aporrectodea caliginosa in comparison with surrounding soil, although potential nitrogenase activity was significantly higher in soil than in casts. Nitrogenase activity associated directly with earthworms (Lumbricus rubellus ) was detected, indicating the presence of active N₂-fixing bacteria on the body surface and/or in the gut. Laboratory experiments showed that nitrogenase activity in the casts of L. rubellus was higher than in unmodified soil, and that nitrogenase activity in soil was significantly increased by the burrowing and feeding activity of these worms. This paper discusses the possible causes of these earthworm effects on soil nitrogenase activity and some methodological problems of determining the nitrogenase activity.     

Nitrogenase activity and nitrogen-fixing bacteria associated with the roots ofAtriplex spp. growing in saline sodic soils of Pakistan

Summary TwoAtriplex spp. growing in low-fertility saline sodic soils were assayed for root-associated nitrogenase activity. The excised washed and unwashed root of the two species.A. lentiformis andA. amnicola, showed high root-associated nitrogenase activity. Acetylene-reducing activity seemed to be directly influenced by moisture. The highest number of diazotrophs, enumerated using a most probable number technique was observed on the root surface. Most of the isolated diazotrophs were identified asEnterobacter agglomerans. Root-associated nitrogenase activity inAtriplex spp. may explain the high protein and biomass content of these plants growing in low-fertility saline sodic soils.     

Effect of inoculum rate on the performance of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) Rhizobium strains in the field

Summary The influence of three inoculum rates on the performance of three chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) Rhizobium strains was examined in the field on a Mollisol soil. Increasing amounts of inoculum improved the performance of the strains. A normal dose (10⁴ cells per seed) applied at different intervals gave non-significant increases in nodulation, nitrogenase activity (acetylene reduction assay), nitrogen uptake and grain yield. A ten-fold increase in inoculum increased nodule number, shoot dry weight, nitrogenase activity (ARA) and grain yield, but increases over the control were significant only for nodule dry weight and nitrogen uptake by shoot and grain. The highest level of inoculum (100 × normal) significantly increased nodule dry weight, grain yield, total nitrogenase activity (ARA) and nitrogen uptake by shoot and grain. Strain TAL 620 was more effective than the other two. Combined nitrogen (60 kg N ha^–1) suppressed nodulation and nitrogenase activity (ARA).Research paper No. 4345 from the Experiment Station, G. B. P. U. A. & T., Pantnagar, Nainital, U. P.     

Potential mechanisms of soil nitrogen content heterogeneity associated with biocrust development in drylands

Biological soil crusts (biocrusts) are complex communities of micro- and macro-organisms dwelling at the soil surface in dryland regions worldwide, which contribute to important ecological functions in these areas. Biocrusts may reach different developmental stages, associated to autogenic succession of specific phototrophic organisms. However, notwithstanding the large amount of existing literature, little is known regarding the relationship between biocrust stages of development and soil nutrient dynamics. In this opinion paper, we specifically focused on soil nitrogen, and compared the total nitrogen content and potential nitrogenase activity of different developmental types of biocrust (-covered) soils. Based on published reports, we looked at a possible relationship between nitrogen content at the soil surface and biocrust development, discussing the potential mechanisms leading to the observed soil nitrogen content heterogeneity. The results showed that a higher nitrogen content remained associated to the presence of moss-dominated biocrusts, and this biocrust morphotype was characterized by a lower potential nitrogenase activity compared to the cyanobacteria- and/or lichen-dominated biocrusts. We hypothesized that these seemingly contradictory findings might be attributed to three potential mechanisms: nitrogen inheritance, nutrient retention and nutrient transfer, which we hereby examined one by one. Altogether, our opinion supports the theory of biocrust succession from incipient cyanobacteria-dominated stages to more ‘mature’ stages dominated by mosses. We stress how the heterogeneous distribution of soil nitrogen, which is closely related with biocrust development and community types, eventually affects regional and even global nitrogen dynamic and storage.     

Effect of inoculation with Azotobacter chroococcum on nitrogenase activity of Zea mays roots grown in agricultural soils under aseptic and non-sterile conditions

Summary Inoculated and non-inoculated seedlings of Zea mays were grown in agricultural soils under aseptic and non-sterile conditions. Acetylene reduction activity and microbial counts were determined after 7 and 30 days of growth. Irrespective of the soil type Azotobacter spp. were commonly isolated under maize cultivation. Inoculation of agricultural soils with a suspension of A. chroococcum led to an increase in Azotobacter numbers, although this effect diminished with time. Nitrogenase activity was detected on maize roots and increased in response to the inoculation with A. chroococcum, showing that this associative growth could be of primary importance for the plant. The results of assays for acetylene reduction activity indicated that the nitrogenase activity was associated only with the root systems.     

Nitrogen fixation by biological soil crusts and heterotrophic bacteria in an intact Mojave Desert ecosystem with elevated CO2 and added soil carbon

Fixation of N by biological soil crusts and free-living heterotrophic soil microbes provides a significant proportion of ecosystem N in arid lands. To gain a better understanding of how elevated CO₂ may affect N₂-fixation in aridland ecosystems, we measured C₂H₂ reduction as a proxy for nitrogenase activity in biological soil crusts for 2 yr, and in soils either with or without dextrose-C additions for 1 yr, in an intact Mojave Desert ecosystem exposed to elevated CO₂. We also measured crust and soil δ¹⁵N and total N to assess changes in N sources, and δ¹³C of crusts to determine a functional shift in crust species, with elevated CO₂. The mean rate of C₂H₂ reduction by biological soil crusts was 76.9±5.6 μmol C₂H₄ m⁻² h⁻¹. There was no significant CO₂ effect, but crusts from plant interspaces showed high variability in nitrogenase activity with elevated CO₂. Additions of dextrose-C had a positive effect on rates of C₂H₂ reduction in soil. There was no elevated CO₂ effect on soil nitrogenase activity. Plant cover affected soil response to C addition, with the largest response in plant interspaces. The mean rate of C₂H₂ reduction in soils either with or without C additions were 8.5±3.6 μmol C₂H₄ m⁻² h⁻¹ and 4.8±2.1 μmol m⁻² h⁻¹, respectively. Crust and soil δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C values were not affected by CO₂ treatment, but did show an effect of cover type. Crust and soil samples in plant interspaces had the lowest values for both measurements. Analysis of soil and crust [N] and δ¹⁵N data with the Rayleigh distillation model suggests that any plant community changes with elevated CO₂ and concomitant changes in litter composition likely will overwhelm any physiological changes in N₂-fixation.     

Distribution and activity of hypolithic soil crusts in a hyperarid desert (Baja California, Mexico)

Widespread and ecologically important, biological soil crusts include those microbial communities living on the surface of the soil and those that live beneath semitranslucent rocks (a.k.a. hypolithic crusts). We examined the distribution, abundance, physiology, and potential soil N contributions of hypolithic, biological crusts in hyperarid ecosystems of the Baja California peninsula and islands in the midriff region of the Gulf of California, Mexico (Sonoran desert). Crusts were limited in distribution to areas with translucent quartz rocks less than 3 cm thick, were not found on areas of islands with seabird guano deposition, but covered as much as 1% (12,750 m²) of the surface area of one island. The percent of available rocks colonized by crusts was similar between the mainland (38%) and islands without seabird guano (26%). Carbon fixation rates in the field, which have not been previously reported, ranged between 0 and 1.23 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹, and in the lab ranged between 0.66 and 0.94 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹. Evidence of low rates of N fixation was inferred from δ ¹⁵N values of crust and soil. Hypolithic crusts were found to have minimal, if any, influence on soil salinity, pH, and , but may represent up to 14% of the biomass of primary producers on these islands and provide C and N to the belowground and possibly aboveground heterotrophic communities where crusts exist. The results of this study suggest a limited but potentially important contribution of hypolithic soil crusts to hyperarid ecosystems.     

Effect of nitrogen levels and Rhizobium strains on symbiotic N2 fixation and grain yield of Phaseolus vulgaris L. genotypes in normal and saline-sodic soils

Summary Following screening, selection, characterization, and symbiotic N₂ fixation with 12,5, 25.0, and 40.0 mg N kg^–1 in normal and saline-sodic soils, only two Phaseolus vulgaris genotypes (HUR 137 and VL 63) and two Rhizobium spp. strains (ND 1 and ND 2) produced maximum nodulation, nitrogenase activity, plant N contents, and grain yields in saline-sodic soil, with 12.5 mg N kg^–1, compared with the other strains. However, interactions between strains (USDA 2689, USDA 2674, and ND 5) and genotypes (PDR 14, HUR 15, and HUR 138) were significant and resulted in more nodulation, and greater plant N contents, nitrogenase activity, and grain yields in normal soils with 12.5 mg N kg^–1 compared with salt-tolerant strains. Higher levels of N inhibited nodulation and nitrogenase activity without affecting grain yields. To achieve high crop yields from saline-sodic and normal soils in the plains area, simultaneous selection of favourably interacting symbionts is necessary for N economy, so that bean yields can be increased by the application of an active symbiotic system.     

Nitrogen fixation in biological soil crusts from southeast Utah,USA

Biological soil crusts can be the dominant source of N for arid land ecosystems. We measured potential N fixation rates biweekly for 2 years, using three types of soil crusts: (1) crusts whose directly counted cells were >98% Microcoleus vaginatus (light crusts); (2) crusts dominated by M. vaginatus, but with 20% or more of the directly counted cells represented by Nostoc commune and Scytonema myochrous (dark crusts); and (3) the soil lichen Collema sp. At all observation times, Collema had higher nitrogenase activity (NA) than dark crusts, which had higher NA than light crusts, indicating that species composition is critical when estimating N inputs. In addition, all three types of crusts generally responded in a similar fashion to climate conditions. Without precipitation within a week of collection, no NA was recorded, regardless of other conditions being favorable. Low (<1°C) and high (>26°C) temperatures precluded NA, even if soils were moist. If rain or snow melt had occurred 3 or less days before collection, NA levels were highly correlated with daily average temperatures of the previous 3 days (r²=0.93 for Collema crusts; r²=0.86 for dark crusts and r²=0.83 for light crusts) for temperatures between 1°C and 26°C. If a precipitation event followed a long dry period, NA levels were lower than if collection followed a time when soils were wet for extended periods (e.g., winter). Using a combination of data from a recording weather datalogger, time-domain reflectometry, manual dry-down curves, and N fixation rates at different temperatures, annual N input from the different crust types was estimated. Annual N input from dark crusts found at relatively undisturbed sites was estimated at 9 kg ha^-1 year^-1. With 20% cover of the N-fixing soil lichen Collema, inputs are estimated at 13 kg ha^-1 year^-1. N input from light crusts, generally indicating soil surface disturbance, was estimated at 1.4 kg ha^-1 year^-1. The rates in light crusts are expected to be highly variable, as disturbance history will determine cyanobacterial biomass and therefore N fixation rates.     

Shrub-interspace dynamics alter relationships between microbial community composition and belowground ecosystem characteristics

In desert ecosystems, belowground characteristics are influenced chiefly by the formation and persistence of “shrub-islands of fertility” in contrast to barren plant interspaces. If soil microbial communities are exclusively compared between these two biogeochemically distinct soil types, the impact of characteristics altered by shrub species, especially soil C and N, are likely to be overemphasized and overshadow the role of other characteristics in structuring microbial composition. To determine how belowground characteristics influence microbial community composition, and if the relative importance of these characteristics shifts across the landscape (i.e., between and within shrub and interspace soils), changes in microbial communities across a 3000-year cold desert chronosequence were related to 27 belowground characteristics in surface and subsurface soils. When shrub and interspace communities in surface and subsurface soils were combined across the entire chronosequence, communities differed and were primarily influenced by soil C, NO₃⁻ concentrations, bulk density, pH, and root presence. Within shrub soils, microbial communities were shrub species-specific, especially in surface soils, highlighting differences in soil characteristics created by specific shrub species and/or similarity in stresses structuring shrub species and microbial communities alike. Microbial communities in shrub soils were not influenced by soil C, but by NO₃⁻ and NH₄⁺ concentrations, pH, and silt in surface soils; and Cl, P, soil N, and NO₃⁻ concentrations in subsurface soils. Interspace soil communities were distinct across the chronosequence at both depths and were strongly influenced by dune development. Interspace communities were primarily associated with soil stresses (i.e., high B and Cl concentrations), which decreased with dune development. The distribution of Gram-positive bacteria, Actinobacteria, and fungi highlighted community differences between and within shrub and interspace soils, while Gram-negative bacteria were common in all soils across the chronosequence. Of the 27 belowground characteristics investigated, 13 separated shrub from interspace communities, and of those, only five emerged as factors influencing community composition within shrub and interspace soils. As dunes develop across this cold desert chronosequence, microbial community composition was not regulated primarily by soil C, but by N and P availability and soil stresses in shrub soils, and exclusively by soil stresses in interspace soils.     

Mechanical and hydraulic resistance relations in crust-topped soils

The formation of soil surface crusts leads to increased mechanical and hydraulic resistances. In this study, changes and relationships of both resistances under simulated sprinkle irrigation (or rainfall), and sprinkle followed by flooding, were examined. Results indicated that a silt-loam soil developed a thicker surface crust than a clay soil for any given kinetic energy (KE). Crusts as thick as 3.9 and 2.6 mm formed on the silt-loam and clay soils, respectively. Mechanical resistance, R_m, increased with increasing KE, where the effect was greater in the silt-loam and was attributed to intrinsic resistance and crust thickness. Steady-state infiltration rate (i) was much lower in crusted clay than crusted silt-loam soil. Changes of both R_m, and i closely followed changes in crust thickness (z_c). Thicker crusts showed more resistance against external force than thinner crusts, due to more extended particle interlocking. Obtained functions indicated that the effect of thickness on strength was more significant in the lower range of crust thickness. The effect of z_c on i strongly followed a negative power function for both soils, with higher i in the silt-loam soil.     

Changes in soil organic matter and net nitrogen mineralization in heathland soils,after removal,addition or replacement of litter from Erica tetralix or Molinia caerulea

Summary The effects of different litter input rates and of different types of litter on soil organic matter accumulation and net N mineralization were investigated in plant communities dominated by Erica tetralix L. or Molinia caerulea (L.) Moench. Plots in which the litter on the soil had repeatedly been removed were compared with plots in the same plant community in which litter had been added to the soil. In another treatment, litter was removed and replaced by litter from the other plant community. Net N mineralization was measured in situ after 5 years. Less soil organic matter and soil N was found in plots in which litter had been removed, compared with control plots, or plots to which litter had been added, but these differences were significant for the Erica sp. soils only. Plots in which litter had been replaced and control plots did not differ significantly in the amount of soil organic matter. However, in both plant communities, the differences agreed with the faster decomposition rate of Molinia sp. litter compared with Erica sp. litter. The gravimetric soil moisture content was correlated positively with the amount of soil organic matter, both in the Erica sp. soils and the Molinia sp. soils. Net N mineralization rates (g N m^-2) differed significantly between treatments for Erica sp. soils but no for Molinia sp. soils. For Erica sp. soils, net N mineralization rates increased with increasing amounts of soil organic matter and soil N. Replacing the litter with Molinia sp. litter (which differs in chemical composition) had no clear additional effect on the net N mineralization rate.     

Trees on farms and their contribution to soil fertility parameters in Badessa, eastern Ethiopia

Surface (0–15 cm) and subsurface (30–45 cm) soil samples from under canopy, edge of canopy and away from canopy of isolated Cordia africana Lam. and Croton macrostachyus Del. trees and their leaves were examined to investigate leaf nutrient content, root biomass and the contribution of trees on farms to soil fertility parameters in Badessa area, eastern Ethiopia. Leaves of C. macrostachyus had 20% higher P and 25% lower K contents than those of C. africana. The studied species had comparable leaf N content. Both species produced shallow lateral roots that extended beyond the canopy zone. Typically, higher fine root biomass was observed in the surface soils than the subsurface soils. Both species did not affect soil organic C, pH and cation exchange capacity. Surface and subsurface soils under tree canopies had 22–26 and 12–17% higher N, respectively, than the corresponding soils away from tree canopies. Surface soil available P under tree canopies was 34–50% higher than the corresponding soil away from canopies. Available P content of subsurface soil was improved only under C. africana canopy. The available P of surface soil under C. macrostachyus canopy was more than double that for C. africana. Trees of both species increased underneath surface and subsurface exchangeable K by 18–46% compared with the corresponding controls. In conclusion, C. macrostachyus and C. africana trees on farms keep soil nutrient high via protection against leaching, translocation of nutrients from deeper to the surface layer and accumulation of litter, which create a temporary nutrient pool in the surface soils under their canopies.     

Using the spermosphere model technique to describe the dominant nitrogen-fixing microflora associated with wetland rice in two Egyptian soils

Summary This study is an attempt to describe the dominant N₂-fixing microflora associated with the roots of wetland rice. Rice cultivar Giza 171 was grown in a phytotron on two alluvial Egyptian soils for 8 days, a stage when the nitrogenase activity of undisturbed plants reached a level of 245 × 10^–6 mol C₂H₄ h^–1 g^–1 dry weight of leaf. The roots and rhizosphere soils were then used for counting and isolating dominant diazotrophs. Counts and initial enrichment steps were carried out on a selective medium made of an axenic rice plantlet, the spermosphere model, incubated under 1 % acetylene. The counts were very high, exceeding 10⁸ bacteria g^–1 dry weight of rhizosphere soil. Enterobacteriaceae were dominant; most isolates were Enterobacter cloacae belonging to different biotypes in the two soils. Enterobacter agglomerans, Citrobacter freundii and Klebsiella planticola were also present as members of the dominant microflora. Azospirillum brasilense and Azospirillum lipoferum were present as well, but less abundant.     

氮肥对稻田土壤反硝化细菌群落结构和丰度的影响

以氮肥田间定位试验为研究对象,利用PCR-DGGE(聚合酶链反应变性梯度凝胶电泳)和荧光定量PCR(real-time PCR)技术,通过对反硝化细菌nirS基因的检测,分析了定位试验第2年稻田反硝化细菌群落结构和丰度的变化。DGGE图谱及依据其条带位置和亮度数字化数值进行的主成分分析(PCA)结果均显示:在氮肥定位试验第2年,与不施肥对照(CK)比较,在水稻各个生育期(分蘖期、齐穗期和成熟期)内,施用氮肥[150kg(N)·hm-2]的稻田根层土或表土中的反硝化细菌群落结构均无明显变化;且稻田根层土或表土中的反硝化细菌群落结构在水稻各个生育期间也均无明显差异。荧光定量PCR结果显示,在水稻生长发育过程中,施用氮肥的稻田根层土或表土中的反硝化细菌nirS基因拷贝数始终显著(P<0.05)高于其对应的不施肥对照。此外,无论施用氮肥与否,根层土中的反硝化细菌nirS基因拷贝数在水稻成熟期时都会显著(P<0.05)降低;但表土中的nirS基因拷贝数在水稻各生育期间无明显变化;且水稻成熟期时施用氮肥和不施肥的稻田表土中nirS基因拷贝数都显著(P<0.05)高于根层土。同时,与对照比较施用氮肥可促进水稻增产44%。研究表明,短期定位试验中施用氮肥能够显著提高稻田土壤反硝化细菌的丰度,但对其群落结构没有明显影响。     

Carbohydrates in cyanobacterial soil crusts as a source of carbon in the southwest Kalahari, Botswana

Semiarid ecosystems, also known as drylands, contain small amounts of carbon (C). To date only few studies have evaluated soil C dynamics in these ecosystems. Cyanobacterial soil crusts are considered a major source of organic C in semiarid ecosystems through photosynthesis, increasing soil organic C (SOC) pool as carbohydrates. This study considers cyanobacterial soil crusts as a source of C in the southwest Kalahari. Cyanobacterial soil crusts are well adapted to drylands because extracellular polysaccharide (EPS) secretions provide stabilization of soil and resistance to desiccation. The carbohydrate and chlorophyll a content were evaluated in the upper soil profile on Kalahari Sands and pan soils. Topsoil carbohydrate concentration decreased exponentially with depth. The carbohydrate content produced in cyanobacterial soil crusts in the southwest Kalahari represents up to 75% of the total SOC and is thus an essential component for the fertility of Kalahari Sand soils.     

A bradyrhizobial-<Emphasis Type="Italic">Penicillium</Emphasis> spp. biofilm with nitrogenase activity improves N<Subscript>2</Subscript> fixing symbiosis of soybean

A bradyrhizobial-fungal biofilm (i.e. Bradyrhizobium elkanii SEMIA 5019-Penicillium spp.) developed in vitro was assayed for its nitrogenase activity and was evaluated for N₂-fixing symbiosis with soybean under greenhouse conditions. The biofilm showed nitrogenase activity, but the bradyrhizobial strain alone did not. Shoot and root growth, nodulation and N accumulation of soybean increased significantly with an inoculum developed from the biofilm. This study concludes that such biofilmed inoculants can improve N₂-fixing symbiosis in legumes, and can also directly contribute to soil N fertility in the long term. Further studies should be conducted to investigate the performance of these inoculants under field conditions.     

Effect of salt stress on interaction between lentil (Lens culinaris) genotypes and Rhizobium spp. strains: symbiotic N2 fixation in normal and sodic soils

 Following screening, selection, characterization and examination of their symbiotic N₂ fixation, only two Rhizobium strains (ND-16 and TAL-1860) and four lentil genotypes (DLG-103, LC-50, LC-53 and Sehore 74-3) were found to be suited to sodic soils. Interactions between salt-tolerant lentil genotypes and Rhizobium strains were found to be significant, and resulted in greater nodulation, N₂ fixation (nitrogenase activity), total nitrogen, plant height, root length and grain yield in sodic soils under field conditions compared to uninoculated controls. Significantly more nodulation, nitrogenase activity, glutamine synthetase (GS) and NADH-dependent glutamate synthase (NADH-GOGAT) activities were found in normal soil as compared to the soil supplemented with 4% and 8% NaCl. Salt stress inhibited nitrogenase, GS and NADH-GOGAT activities. However, nitrogenase activity in nodules was more sensitive to salt stress than GS and NADH-GOGAT activities (NH₄ ⁺ assimilation). The relevance of these findings for salt-tolerant symbionts is discussed. Received: 14 November 1997     

Controlling effects of surface crusts on water infiltration in an arid desert area of Northwest China

Purpose

Surface crusts are important features in arid desert areas and are critical to hydrological processes and ecosystem development. This paper aims to understand the effects of crusts on water movement in the soil and the factors that affect this and to provide the soil parameters for estimation of saturated hydraulic conductivity (K _s) in ecohydrological models.

Materials and methods

The study area was located in the middle and lower reaches of the Heihe River Basin, an arid desert area in Northwest China. There were three crust types in this region: physical soil crusts (PSCs, formed by water drop and erosion), biological soil crusts (BSCs, formed by microorganisms, moss, algae, lichen, and soil materials), and salt soil crusts (SSCs, formed by soluble salts). The infiltration rates of different soil and crust types and scalped soils were determined in situ in the field conditions using a disc infiltrometer with three repetitions. Crusts and soils were collected, and their properties were determined in the laboratory.

Results and discussion

The K _s of crust were significantly lower than that of scalped soils with a decrease of 13–70 %. The K _s of crusts were related to the type of crust and the properties of soil beneath the crusts. In this region, the soil textures are similar throughout, due to ubiquitous loess sedimentation, so textural differences had no significant effect on K _s. Soil organic matter (SOM) played a weak negative role on K _s because most crusts had higher SOM than the underlying soil. However, both crust thickness and electrical conductivity (EC, an index of salt concentration) showed significantly negative exponential relationship with K _s. Therefore, the SSC with high EC and thick crust have the lowest K _s among all crust types. Because soil development is related to salt accumulation, structure, and crust formation, the K _s follows the order of Solonchaks < Cambisols < Regosols, from lowest to highest.

Conclusions

Crusts have different characteristics compared with original soils and are the limiting layer of water infiltration in these arid soils. Therefore, the characteristics of crust must be considered in ecohydrological models. The main apparent controlling parameters of water infiltration rate in this area are crust thickness and EC.