Conservation of Pteropus livingstonii based on roost site habitat characteristics on Anjouan and Moheli, Comoros islands

Livingstone's fruit bats, Pteropus livingstonii, (Pteropodidae: Chiroptera) are endemic to only two islands, Moheli and Anjouan of the Comoros Islands in the West Indian Ocean. With an estimated population of less than 2000 individuals, P. livingstonii is listed as Critically Endangered on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List. Yet the habitat characteristics of these giant fruit bats, or flying foxes, are poorly known. I conducted field research during 5 months in 1998 focused on finding new roost sites, measuring characteristics of both roost sites and roost trees at new as well as previously identified roost sites, and recording the same characteristics for a set of absence sites. I identified six new roost sites allowing me to measure the characteristics of 15 known roost sites and seven absence sites. The study spanned both dry and rainy seasons and I found a significant increase in the number of individuals at roost sites during the rainy season. Bat roost sites were associated with presence of water, southeast aspect, steep slopes, and presence of several native tree species. Roost habitat was characterized based on biotic, abiotic and human factors. This research on habitat characteristics is contributing to the development of a conservation action plan for the Livingstone's fruit bats. However, further research on dry season roost sites and distribution as well as feeding sites is necessary in order to better understand their seasonal habitat requirements and therefore ensure the conservation of P. livingstonii.     

Habitat selection and conservation of Sharpe's longclaw (Macronyx sharpei), a threatened Kenyan grassland endemic

Montane grassland is a severely threatened habitat in Kenya. Despite a high level of faunal endemism, it has received very little conservation attention. We investigated habitat selection in a threatened grassland endemic bird species, Sharpe's longclaw (Macronyx sharpei) (family Motacillidae), in order to understand its likely response to land-use changes. Between November 1995 and May 1996, we studied 41 territories of this species on the Kinangop Plateau in central Kenya. With an overall density of 0.4 birds ha⁻¹, longclaws lived in permanent groups of two to seven individuals. They were sedentary and territorial, with a mean home range size of 0.5 ha. The species avoided non-grassland areas entirely, and within grassland showed a strong preference for short grass with tussocks. Territory sizes and foraging ranges were smaller, and rates of pecking for food higher, in this grassland type than in open short grass or long grass. Land use changes, in particular conversion to cultivation or woodlots and ploughing up of grassland to remove tussocks, pose a serious and immediate threat to this species. Dairy farming is potentially compatible with grassland conservation, and conservation-friendly livestock rearing needs to be promoted through economic incentives, awareness-raising and technical advice.     

Habitat selection by the pale-headed brush-finch (Atlapetes pallidiceps) in southern Ecuador: implications for conservation

The pale-headed brush-finch (Atlapetes pallidiceps) is threatened with extinction due to habitat loss, but very little is known about its ecological requirements. We used multiple logistic regression to study habitat selection of this species at landscape, territory, and nest site scales in order to make recommendations about effective management. Habitat selection by the sympatric stripe-headed brush-finch (Buarremon torquatus) was examined with the same methods in order to analyse interspecific resource partitioning and potential competition. The pale-headed brush-finch selected semi-open habitat types with intermediate scrub heights, and avoided forests. Nest sites depended on the presence of vines or bamboo. By contrast, the stripe-headed brush-finch chose dense habitat with low ground cover under tall vegetation and avoided semi-open habitat. The two species had overlapping territories but differed significantly in microhabitat use and the use of vegetation strata. We found no convincing evidence that the stripe-headed brush-finch displaces the pale-headed brush-finch from optimal habitat. The preservation of semi-open scrubland maintained by low-intensity grazing is suggested for future conservation of the pale-headed brush-finch.     

Soil and climate are better than biotic land cover for predicting home-range habitat selection by endangered burrowing owls across the Canadian Prairies

Statistical models that describe species-environmental relationships are important components within many wildlife conservation strategies. These models are typically developed from studies conducted on small geographic scales (hundreds of square kilometres), representing a relatively small range in environmental conditions. Such local models from local studies are often then extrapolated to predict the suitability of other unsampled regions. The value of many models would be increased by considering larger-scale processes that might be structuring spatial patterns across species distributions. We examined home-range habitat selection by burrowing owls throughout the mixed prairie grassland region of western Canada (180,000 km²) to determine whether owl selection for biotic factors changes along abiotic gradients. Specifically, we classified 37 explanatory variables into five categories (geography, grassland fragmentation, land-use, soil, and climate), created models for each set of variables, and evaluated the predictive ability of each model. We then examined interaction effects to determine if the relationship between land cover variables and the probability of owl home-range selection varied within large-scale abiotic criteria. Our results showed that soil and climate produce the most predictive models of burrowing owl home-range selection and create unique environmental conditions for owls which are independent of land cover at this scale. This study provides new insight into burrowing owl habitat requirements, and strengthens the case for considering large-scale abiotic gradients when prioritizing areas for species conservation.     

Habitat associations of the endangered damselfly, Coenagrion mercuriale, in a water meadow ditch system in southern England

The damselfly Coenagrion mercuriale (Charpentier) (Odonata: Coenagrionidae) is threatened throughout Europe. It is listed on the EC Habitats and Species Directive and is the only odonate currently given priority status in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan. Information about the habitat preferences of this species is required to guide conservation and management programmes. We obtained estimates of density of mature adult C. mercuriale during an intensive mark-release-recapture study over 7.65 km of a water meadow ditch network in the Itchen Valley, Hampshire. Detailed habitat information was also collected, including a variety of physical variables, and data about the in-channel and bankside vegetation. C. mercuriale density and movement were analysed in relation to habitat variables and local population size using Generalized Linear Models. Mean adjacent population density was the single most important factor determining density. However the species was also associated with a number of habitat features, the most important of which were: a channel substrate consisting primarily of silt, wide underwater ledges (berms), in-channel emergent dicots, and bankside monocots. The presence of trees was negatively associated with damselfly density. Mean net lifetime movement was greatest from sections with low density, with smaller than average berms, and with deeper water. The causes and consequences of these findings are discussed in relation to the conservation and management of this rare species.     

Effects of anthropogenic land use on forest birds and butterflies in Subic Bay, Philippines

Despite the loss of 83% of native forests in the Philippines, little is known on the effects of this massive habitat loss and degradation on its forest biotas. This is a cause for concern because of the threat posed to the country’s large number of endemic taxa. To investigate the impacts of anthropogenic disturbance, forest birds and butterflies were surveyed in closed and open canopy forests, as well as suburban, rural and urban areas within the Subic Bay Watershed Reserve and Olongapo City in western Luzon. Measures of forest species richness and population densities for both taxa were similar in the two forest types, but showed different patterns in the other habitats. Indirect gradient analysis showed that forest bird species were positively correlated with vegetation variables (i.e., canopy cover, tree density, height to inversion and ground cover), while forest butterflies were not strongly correlated to any of the measured habitat variables. Community composition of birds in forests was distinct from those in modified habitats, while butterfly communities were more similar. A simulation showed that canopy cover of 60% or higher was required by 24 of the 26 bird species that were sensitive to canopy loss. Endemicity and nesting strata were the significant predictors of vulnerability to habitat disturbance for birds, while endemicity and larval hostplant specificity were significant for butterflies. Both taxa were negatively affected by anthropogenic disturbance but may respond to different components in the habitat (i.e., structure and resources), and thus cannot be used as surrogates of each other. Conservation of forests with contiguous canopy cover should be prioritized, and more ecological research is needed to improve the knowledge on the effects of disturbance on Philippine biodiversity.     

Reproductive biology of three sympatric endangered plants endemic to Florida scrub

We investigated the reproductive biology of three plants endemic to rosemary scrub habitats on the Lake Wales Ridge of Florida, USA. We used hand-pollination experiments and observations of flowers and their insect visitors to determine their mating systems and pollination. Fruit or seed set after self pollination was 94, 97, and 8% of fruit or seed set after cross pollination in Eryngium cuneifolium (Apiaceae), Hypericum cumulicola (Hypericaceae), and Liatris ohlingerae (Asteraceae) respectively, indicating that the first two are self-compatible and the last is obligately outcrossing. All three depend on insects for seed production (4-7% fruit or seed set without insects). Diverse insects visit flowers of E. cuneifolium (101 species recorded), whereas L. ohlingerae is visited predominantly by butterflies and H. cumulicola by one genus of bees (Dialictus, Halictidae). Our data indicate pollinator visitation does not currently limit seed production in E. cuneifolium or H. cumulicola, but does in L. ohlingerae. Despite the features they share (habit, habitat, disturbance regime), we found unique aspects of these species' reproductive biology yielding unique risks to population viability. We suggest that multispecies recovery plans must consider several aspects of the biology of species with superficial similarities to be successful.     

Habitat selection of the Eurasian woodcock in winter in relation to earthworms availability

The Eurasian woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) is a game species experiencing high hunting pressure, long-term modifications of its habitats, and with questions regarding its current conservation status. Winter is a season of highest concentration of birds and hunting pressure but woodcock precise habitat requirements are poorly known. It is crucial to assess threats and to develop sustainable management options for the conservation of woodcock populations. During three consecutive winters, we monitored 65 individual woodcocks fitted with radio-tags in Brittany, France. Habitat selection was analysed using GIS and compositional analysis, in relation to vegetation types, soil variables (humus types) and the abundance of their main prey (earthworms). Woodcocks used different habitats diurnally and nocturnally, generally preferring areas with high earthworm biomass. Diurnal habitat selection in forests was associated with humus type (preference for mulls, rich in earthworms) and dense shrub strata (better protection). Hedges with a high density of trees and shrub were also important habitat. At night, grazed meadows were the preferred habitat, containing five times higher biomass of earthworms compared to cultivated fields. Sustainable management of populations requires protection and management of habitats that incorporates food and cover. Forestry practices should preserve rich humus types and coppices by choosing tree species that ameliorate the soil and soil tilling. Changes in landscapes and intensive agricultural practices are current threats to woodcock populations: destruction of hedges, decrease of permanent grazed meadows, impoverishment of soils fauna biomasses from ploughing and chemical applications. However, woodcocks may benefit from the recent development of set-asides, grass field-borders and simplified farm practices (no-tillage and direct sowing).     

Habitat, human pressure, and social behavior: Partialling out factors affecting large-scale territory extinction in an endangered vulture

Extinctions are often the result of multiple factors that are difficult to disentangle and so methods for identifying simple and combined types of extinctions are valuable for both basic and applied ecology. We applied a modification of variance partitioning and a hierarchical partitioning analysis to test several hypotheses that attempt to explain the recent large-scale disappearance of Egyptian Vulture breeding territories in Spain. Our aim was to identify and then separate the simple (or pure) from the combined effects of habitat features, human pressure, and the social behavior of the species on the risk of extinction from a territory while controlling for spatial autocorrelation. Deviance partitioning showed that a complex mix of factors is significantly related to the disappearance of more than 400 territories throughout Spain. Abandoned territories were located in areas that are isolated from other conspecific territories and far from communal roost sites. In addition, these territories were found in places where there is a lack of natural habitats, high habitat fragmentation and reduced habitat diversity, and where food availability seems to be low and the illegal use of poison to control predators is a common practice. Deviance partitioning also showed an important spatial component in the probability of extinction. Abandoned territories were not randomly distributed; rather, they were aggregated in extinction ‘hotspots’, mainly related to food availability and human pressure. Deviance partitioning turned out to be an useful tool for identifying the relative contribution of a variety of factors - and their combined effects - associated with an extinction process. The deviance explained by each factor must be interpreted, however, in the context of a good knowledge of the life history of the species. Hierarchical partitioning can help rank conservation priorities and, by using as an objective criterion the relative weight of each independent variable that could be effectively managed for conservation, may provide wildlife managers with a means of saving funds and optimizing action plans.     

Habitat associations of bats in Northern Ireland: implications for conservation

Agricultural intensification in Northern Ireland has brought about large-scale changes to the landscape with a detrimental effect on biodiversity. Between 1996 and 1998, we surveyed a stratified random sample of 1 km squares for bats using a spot-sample technique and time expansion bat detector to establish linear and area habitat associations. Bats strongly selected water bodies with bankside vegetation, treelines, and deciduous and mixed woodland edge, avoiding open areas such as upland/unimproved grassland and improved grassland. Of three sympatric pipistrelle species (Pipistrellus pipistrellus, P. pygmaeus and P. nathusii), two were shown to forage in different habitats; P. pipistrellus being more of a ‘generalist’, foraging in a wider variety of habitats than P. pygmaeus, a ‘specialist’ which foraged in a smaller range of habitats. Nyctalus leisleri selected parkland/amenity grassland, deciduous woodland edge and rivers/canals and avoided improved grassland, hedgerows, whilst Myotis spp. selected deciduous woodland centre, lake/reservoir margins and rivers/canals. Reduction in area and quality of inland water, deciduous woodlands and field boundaries in Northern Ireland may impact on bat populations. Habitat management should focus on improving those habitats which are selected by bats, including the maintenance and enhancement of connecting linear habitats.     

Bighorn sheep habitat use and selection near an urban environment

To further understand the impact of urban development on wildlife populations, we examined habitat use and selection by female bighorn sheep Ovis canadensis in two endangered subpopulations near a metropolitan area in southern California. One subpopulation, which had previously been found to have low reproductive success, selected urban environments while the other did not use urban areas. In the subpopulation that used urban areas, females had smaller core activity areas and selected lower elevations and gentler slopes. These females used urban sources of water but a clear relationship between levels of urban use and periods of increased water need was not evident. Diet quality was higher among females that selected urban areas, and this increase was correlated with the level of urban use. Thus, optimal foraging behavior may have contributed to the selection of urban areas. Urban use was lowest during peak months of parturition, suggesting that reproductive strategies may also have influenced temporal patterns of urban use. Although urban areas provided bighorn sheep with forage and water resources, the use of these areas may have substantial costs. For example, females using urban areas had internal parasites that were not found elsewhere in the Peninsular Ranges.     

Habitat of endangered white abalone, Haliotis sorenseni

Surveys with a submersible at offshore islands and banks in southern California found that white abalone were most abundant at depths between 43 and 60 m. This is deeper than estimates taken when white abalone were more abundant. Densities were highest at sites far from fishing ports. Controlling for depth and site found that white abalone were significantly more abundant in areas with Laminaria farlowii (an alga) but abalone were not associated with areas high in the cover of other algae (Pelagophycus porra or Eisenia arborea) or the amount of sand in the habitat (except that abalone always occurred on rock). Within an area with abalone, the particular rock they occurred on was significantly larger than unoccupied neighboring rocks. Occupied rocks were not significantly different in algal cover or in sea urchin density than unoccupied neighboring rocks. The position of abalone on a rock was nearer to the rock-sand interface than would be expected based on a random distribution. More white abalone were feeding when in association with red urchins, perhaps because both grazers capture drift algae to eat. These data may aid future efforts to locate white abalone brood stock and identify locations for outplanting.     

Habitat requirements of passerines and reedbed management in southern France

Reedbeds have high conservation value in Europe. In southern France, they are the major breeding habitat of five passerine species. Yet, habitat management is done primarily by water control to serve socio-economic rather than conservation interests, because we lack information on the species' ecological requirements. Determinants of passerine abundance were assessed through a comparative analysis of water regime, plant structure, and arthropod (food) distribution at 12 sites consisting of at least 10 ha of marsh densely covered with common reed (Phragmites australis). Overall bird abundance estimated through standardised mist netting was positively correlated with food availability (sweep-netted arthropods weighted by their occurrence in birds' diet), which was in turn negatively correlated with duration of ground dryness between June and December. Abundance of four of the five bird species was associated with specific vegetation parameters (reed diameter, dry reed density, growing reed height, etc.), which could be associated with particular management practices, especially with regard to water levels and salinity. Potential impact of socio-economic activities through their water management is addressed, as well as possible ways to minimise these impacts.     

Habitat selection models for European wildcat conservation

Populations of the European wildcat (Felis silvestris) are only slowly recovering in Central Europe after a severe decline in the last centuries and require specific conservation plans in many areas. However, detailed information on wildcat occurrence and habitat requirements is still scarce and controversial. We present a fine-scale habitat selection model for wildcats based on detailed species and land use information and evaluate its accuracy to predict habitat distribution in new areas. We analysed habitat use within home ranges using single locations of 12 radio-tracked individuals from south western Germany. Several competing models were fitted and compared using generalised linear mixed models (GLMM) and information-theoretic approaches. Radio-tracking data of 9 and 10 wildcats from two distant areas were used to evaluate the models. The selected model predicted habitat associated to close distance to forest, watercourses and meadows and a critical distance to villages, single houses and roads. To predict area suitable for home ranges we superimposed rules derived from home range attributes at a higher level of selection. Predictions from the combination of the fine-scale habitat model and home range rules matched well with more than 2000 wildcat observations of south-western Germany. We discuss the application of the model in wildcat conservation for finding potential reintroduction sites, identifying small isolated populations and aiding in the evaluation of the needs of mitigation and compensation within the scope of the European Habitats Directive.     

Multiple spatial scale logistic and autologistic habitat selection models for northern pygmy owls, along the eastern slopes of Alberta’s Rocky Mountains

Little is known about the distribution and habitat use of northern pygmy owls (Glaucidium gnoma), in Alberta or throughout their range. In Alberta they are ranked as ‘sensitive’, meaning they are not believed to be at immediate risk of extirpation or extinction but may require special attention or protection to prevent them from becoming at risk.Diurnal broadcast surveys were conducted to determine distribution and habitat selection throughout a 28,500 km² study area situated along the eastern slopes of the Alberta Rocky Mountains. Surveys lasted for eight weeks in 2001, during which time 1532 site visits were made. Forty-eight responses were recorded at 42 sites representing 40 individual northern pygmy owls. Predictive models of habitat selection were developed using stepwise logistic and autologistic regression. Autologistic models accounted for observed spatial dependencies and as a result, produced better fitting models that more accurately reflect the role of predictor variables in influencing species occurrence. All models considered biophysical variable selection at two spatial scales, the minimum (75 ha) and maximum (300 ha) home range size. Northern pygmy owls showed a preference for older, structurally diverse mixedwood habitats, with line-of-sight enhanced by increased edge and terrain roughness.The use of habitat selection models resulting from this project and Geographic Information Systems as a tool, will enable managers to identify key habitat features, focus future survey efforts, set habitat goals and evaluate the effects of management decisions on current and future habitat availability.     

Habitat use and preliminary demographic evaluation of the critically endangered Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) in the Cilician Basin (Eastern Mediterranean)

Over the last few decades a dramatic decline in the number of Mediterranean monk seals (Monachus monachus) limited scientific studies on the biology, behaviour, and ecology of the species. This lack of information impaired the effectiveness of conservation strategies. Thus, any further information gathered on the monk seal has utmost value in the work to halt and reverse the plight of the species. A hitherto unknown Cilician Basin colony of the Mediterranean monk seal has been investigated during a 6-year period between 1995 and 2001. Results of direct in-cave surveys and land based seal-watch observations enabled the evaluation of habitat use and preliminary demographic information. A total of 39 caves were discovered among which only three were used for breeding. Scarcity of the breeding caves emphasised the importance of breeding habitat in the survival of the colony. Common features of the breeding caves are found as an entrance with a protective barrier against strong waves; a chamber with a wide beach; and a well-sheltered shallow pool. Supplementary data obtained from infrared monitors installed in three actively used caves were used to assess the number of individuals. Throughout the study period, 25 individuals were identified and 11 newborn pups were found. Evaluation of the results suggests the presence of sub-regions inhabited by an individually identified sub-group of monk seals. Recommendations for conservation guided by this information is a Marine Protected Area consisting of two zones; a restricted core zone prohibiting any human activity securing breeding habitat and a restricted fishery zone securing sustainability of the food source.     

Assessing limitations on population growth in two critically endangered Acacia taxa

Flowering phenology, soil seedbank and the impact of fire, weeds and grazing were investigated in two rare Acacia taxa restricted to the agricultural district north of Perth Western Australia. Acacia aprica is known from six extant populations and one extinct population. Five of the extant populations are restricted to linear road reserves with the sixth population located in a small native vegetation remnant. Acacia cochlocarpa ssp. cochlocarpa is known from a single population also situated on a road verge. Size class structure, levels of canopy death and an absence of juveniles indicated that all populations are in decline. Flowering intensity and success varied between populations and years in A. aprica and between years in A. cochlocarpa ssp. cochlocarpa. Seed bank analysis indicated that seeds were patchily distributed while experimental fires demonstrated that such events could break seed dormancy and promote germination. Both taxa have similar germination physiologies and showed increased germination after seeds were exposed to heat. Following emergence, however, competition with annual weeds had a negative impact on seedling growth and survival in both taxa. While vertebrate grazing had some influence, weeds were the major inhibitory influence on recruitment. Reduced fire frequencies since fragmentation may be responsible for population decline in both taxa but other site specific factors such as weeds and grazing may affect the establishment of seedlings following fire.     

Assessing habitat use of the endangered marine mollusc Patella ferruginea (Gastropoda, Patellidae) in northern Africa: preliminary results and implications for conservation

The limpet Patella ferruginea Gmelin, 1791, endemic to the Mediterranean, is the most endangered marine species on the list of the European Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the Conservation of Natural Habitat of Wild Fauna and Flora (1992). Its Mediterranean range has progressively contracted to a few restricted areas and the species is now threatened with extinction. Seventeen stations were sampled along the littoral zone on the coast of Ceuta, North Africa, for quantifying environmental factors (water movement, siltation and suspended solids), and 70 transects were selected for P. ferruginea sampling. The study revealed the presence of a well-established population of P. ferruginea with values of density and size of 0.67 individuals m⁻¹ ±0.96 and 48.94 mm±11.61 respectively (mean±standard error of mean). The biggest densities of P. ferruginea were found inside the harbour of Ceuta. The limpets were more abundant on artificial harbour stones than on natural rocky shores, and the areas under the highest human pressure were characterised by the lowest densities and the smallest specimens probably due mainly to the predation for food and fishing. Human pressure is probably the main contributing factor to the currently endangered status of P. ferruginea. Programmes of environmental education to avoid its collection for fishing, food or for fun as decorative objects should be conducted, and further experimental studies dealing with the reproductive biology of this species are needed to properly assess the future programmes of conservation.     

Habitat use and spatial dynamics of takhi introduced to Hustai National Park, Mongolia

The successful introduction of captive bred takhi or Przewalski’s horse, Equus ferus przewalskii, into Mongolia in the 1990s is a good example of the benefits of ex situ conservation and one of the few examples of the recovery of an animal after it became extinct in the wild. This is also particularly interesting because virtually nothing was known about how takhi lived before they died out, and the introductions have enabled us to study how they have settled, and their ecology and behaviour within their former natural range. In this paper, we describe the movement, home range size and shape, and habitat use of takhi at one of the release areas, the 570 km² Hustai National Park in Mongolia. Harem home ranges varied between 129 and 2399 ha, with 80% core areas of between 61 and 1196 ha. There was no relationship between range size and harem size, or length of time since release. Initially, harems stayed near their release enclosures, but over time they established home ranges further away. There was little overlap between home ranges of different harems, but neither was there evidence of exclusive range use. The more nutritious vegetation at lower elevations was preferentially selected. Thus the present situation looks good, but, as the population continues to grow, we anticipate that there will be potential problems related to intraspecific competition for water and vegetation resources, and the potential for hybridisation with domestic horses belonging to the local people. We consider the time it may take for takhi to reach carrying capacity within Hustai National Park and emphasise that continual monitoring of the population is essential because interventional management is likely to be required in the future.     

Habitat characteristics of adult frosted elfins (Callophrys irus) in sandplain communities of southeastern Massachusetts, USA

Changes to land use and disturbance frequency threaten disturbance-dependent Lepidoptera within sandplain habitats of the northeastern United States. The frosted elfin (Callophrys irus) is a rare and declining monophagous butterfly that is found in xeric open habitats maintained by disturbance. We surveyed potential habitat for adult frosted elfins at four sites containing frosted elfin populations in southeastern Massachusetts, United States. Based on the survey data, we used kernel density estimation to establish separate adult frosted elfin density classes, and then used regression tree analysis to describe the relationship between density and habitat features. Adult frosted elfin density was greatest when the host plant, wild indigo (Baptisia tinctoria), density was >2.6 plants/m² and tree canopy cover was <29%. Frosted elfin density was inversely related to tree cover and declined when the density of wild indigo was <2.6 plants/m² and shrub cover was ?16%. Even small quantities of non-native shrub cover negatively affected elfin densities. This effect was more pronounced when native herbaceous cover was <36%. Our results indicate that management for frosted elfins should aim to increase both wild indigo density and native herbaceous cover and limit native tree and shrub cover in open sandplain habitats. Elimination of non-native shrub cover is also recommended because of the negative effects of even low non-native shrub cover on frosted elfin densities. The maintenance of patches of early successional sandplain habitat with the combination of low tree and shrub cover, high host plant densities, and the absence of non-native shrubs appears essential for frosted elfin persistence, but may also be beneficial for a number of other rare sandplain insects and plant species.