Doing more good than harm - Building an evidence-base for conservation and environmental management

The problems of environmental change and biodiversity loss have entered the mainstream political agenda. Given the call from an increasingly influential environmental lobby for government and wider society to make both financial and personal sacrifices to address these problems, it seems likely that conservation biologists and environmental managers will be asked tough questions of the general form ‘are conservation interventions effective?’ and, ‘are they doing more good than harm?’ Science constantly advances and must remain open to challenge, but managers and policy formers require an interim product (an evidence-base) to underpin their current decision-making. The health services have been using the objective and transparent methodology of systematic review to summarise the evidence-base relating to the effectiveness of interventions. Environmental management has, up until now, had no formal shared evidence-base of this kind. Reviewing recent developments in evidence-based practice, this paper introduces a ‘systematic review’ section for this journal and argues that constructing an evidence-based framework for environment management is possible, the challenge is scaling it up to engage the global scientific community. We draw on the history of evidence-based healthcare, but also on the differences between healthcare and conservation, to set out the challenges in creating a Collaboration for Environmental Evidence that develops a library of systematic reviews on the effectiveness of conservation and environmental interventions.     

Are review articles a reliable source of evidence to support conservation and environmental management? A comparison with medicine

Review articles are important sources of information and often the only source of evidence used by decision makers in conservation and environmental management to assess effectiveness and impact of interventions and other actions. Recent developments in the field of medicine and public health have established ‘systematic review’ guidelines to minimise bias and explicitly document methodology, allowing replication and updating in light of further advances. The aim of this article was to assess the methodological and reporting rigour of reviews from the disciplines of conservation, ecology and environmental management (referred to as “ecological reviews”). This was achieved by comparing them to medical systematic reviews, using 27 detailed criteria well established in medicine. When compared with medical systematic reviews, ecological reviews were more likely to be prone to bias, lacking details in the methods used to search for studies, and were less likely to assess the relevance of studies, quality of the original experiments and to quantitatively synthesise the evidence. Overall, ecological reviews show lower quality and greater variation in reporting style and review methods. To address this, reviewers could use a systematic review approach and journals could provide more explicit guidelines for the preparation and production of review articles.     

Projecting impacts of human disturbances to inform conservation planning and management in a dryland forest landscape

Systematic approaches to conservation planning and management require spatially explicit information on the dynamics of multiple disturbance processes, but progress in providing such information has been limited to date. Here we examine the use of a spatially explicit model of forest dynamics (LANDIS-II), incorporating a range of ecological processes, to examine the impacts of different types of disturbance on a dryland forest landscape in Central Chile. The model was parameterized using spatial data and results of a field survey, in which 21 native tree species were recorded, and one invasive exotic (Acacia dealbata). Seven disturbance scenarios were simulated, with different combinations of fire, browsing and tree cutting. Model results indicated relatively little impact of disturbance on forest cover but substantial differences in forest structure, with relatively old-growth forest stands (>120 years old) being virtually eliminated from the landscape in scenarios with both browsing and cutting. Tree species richness tended to be lower in those scenarios without disturbance, highlighting potential trade-offs between forest structure and species richness. Spread of A. dealbata was projected only to occur in the presence of fire when combined with browsing and/or cutting. These interactive effects of different forms of disturbance illustrate the value of process-based modeling approaches for exploring the spatial dynamics of multiple disturbance processes, but highlight the difficulty of identifying an optimum disturbance regime that would enable conservation objectives to be achieved. It is suggested that process-based models should form part of an analytical ‘toolkit’ to support the practical implementation of systematic conservation planning approaches.     

Carabid beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) diversity in the black spruce succession of eastern Canada

This study provides the first assessment of carabid beetle diversity in a natural forest context that encompasses a complete black spruce (Picea mariana) natural succession. Boreal forest conservation has been based on several assumptions about forest age that only consider species richness without accounting for species composition. It has also been guided by studies of incomplete chronologies that do not include naturally burned or old-growth stages. Twenty-one forest stands of different ages following fire - from recently burned to old-growth stages (0-340 years of age) - were sampled, revealing a strong relationship between age of forest and diversity of Carabidae. Over time, species richness followed a parabolic U-shaped pattern both with observed (Obs) and predicted richness (ACE). Chronological clustering identified four groups of species in the succession: the ‘burned’ group characterized 0-2-year-old forests, ‘regenerating’ (21-58 year), ‘mature’ (70-170 year) and ‘old-growth’ (177-340 year). The time spans corresponding to each of these assemblages lengthen with age of forest at an exponential rate. Ward’s and K-means (clustering without constraint) provided support for the four assemblages but showed variation between individual successions, particularly for the ‘regenerating’ assemblage, identified as the most heterogeneous. The IndVal method identified characteristic species in every stage of the succession, particularly Sericoda spp. in the burned stage and Dromius piceus and Platynus mannerheimii associated with old-growth stands. The results obtained here show that diversity of Carabidae varies in primeval conditions according to age of forest and such variation should be taken into account when conservation issues are involved.     

Does closure of traditionally managed open woodlands threaten epigeic invertebrates? Effects of coppicing and high deer densities

The demise of traditional woodland management techniques, such as coppicing or woodland pasture, is causing a gradual closure of formerly sparse lowland woods across Central Europe. It is established that these processes threaten such organisms as butterflies and higher plants. Effects on other groups, such as epigeic invertebrates, are little known, hindering rational conservation decisions. We investigated the effects of stand openness on three epigeic groups, carabids (Carabidae), arachnids (Araneae + Opiliones) and myriapods-isopods (Chilopoda + Diplopoda + Oniscidea), in a lowland deciduous wood in the Czech Republic. Situating some of the traps in an intensive deer park allowed a simultaneous assessment of effects of high vs. low ungulate densities. Carabids reached the highest species richness in either sparse stands with low game or dense stands, high game. More arachnids occurred under low game and in sparse stands than under high game density and in dense stands. The highest richness of myriapods-isopods was in sparse stands with low game. Ordinations revealed that species of conservation concern (‘relic species’ according to C. European authors) tended to be associated with sparse stands and low game. A considerable proportion of epigeic woodland invertebrates, including many species of conservation concern, depends on preserving highly heterogeneous sparse canopy conditions. Restoring such conditions in selected areas will benefit these sensitive open woodland specialists while causing minimum harm to specialists of dense stands, that likely prosper in commercially managed high forests.     

Impacts of grazing on lowland heathland in north-west Europe

Lowland heathland habitats are recognized to be of high conservation value throughout north-west Europe. Current management approaches focus on arresting natural succession to woodland, and include the use of vegetation cutting, burning and grazing by livestock. However, the introduction of grazing has proved controversial, highlighting the need for evidence regarding its effectiveness. A systematic review of the scientific literature was therefore performed, which identified 13 studies with appropriate comparators (such as untreated controls). Meta-analysis of these data indicated that grazing can result in an increase in the ratio of grassland to ericoid shrub cover, but insufficient experimental evidence was available to assess the effectiveness of any other intervention, indicating a lack of replicated studies with controls. Two forms of expert knowledge were also compiled, based on information in the scientific literature excluded from the meta-analysis, and questionnaire responses of heathland managers. While these two evidence sources were generally in close correspondence, beliefs of heathland managers contradicted the scientific literature with respect to the impact of grazing on the ratio of grassland to ericoid shrubs. Incorporating a range of evidence sources in systematic reviews can therefore provide insights into contradictions in the evidence base. While a large majority of practitioners (94%) believe that grazing is an effective management option for lowland heath, evidence for a number of negative impacts on habitat attributes was recorded, highlighting the need for improved monitoring and experimental analysis of the effectiveness of management interventions.     

‘Ecological forestry’ and eucalypt forests managed for wood production in south-western Australia

The model of ‘ecological forestry’ has evolved as a part of the development of the concept of ecosystem management. ‘Ecological forestry’ emphasises that manipulation of a forest ecosystem should consider, and as far as practicable work within the limits of, natural disturbance patterns prior to extensive human alteration of the landscape. This paper evaluates the extent to which forest management practices in jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) and karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) forests of south-western Australia align with this view of the characteristics and appropriate silviculture of ‘ecological forestry’. Characteristics and appropriate silviculture of ‘ecological forestry’ are evaluated in relation to (i) the stand level decisions of stand structure and harvest timing and (ii) the landscape level decisions of harvest levels and age structures, and spatial patterns of harvest. Forest management in south-western Australia is found to align with appropriate silviculture under this model of ‘ecological forestry’. Additionally, the landscape triad of areas managed to ‘ecological forestry’ principles, conservation reserves and areas managed to production forestry is in place in the south-western forests of Australia. Strengths and weaknesses in the model of ‘ecological forestry’ and the ability to interpret consistency of practices in the forests of south-western Australia with the characteristics of ‘ecological forestry’ are identified.     

The concept and utility of ‘ecological thresholds’ in biodiversity conservation

In the life and natural sciences, the concept of thresholds or points or zones of change from one state to another has been investigated since the late 18th century. Over the past three decades, ecologists and economists around the world have been examining the existence and use of ‘ecological thresholds’ in natural and modified systems, primarily as a conceptual basis for the development of tools to conserve and sustainably manage natural resources. In Australia, there has been a recent renewed interest in the definition and application of ecological thresholds in the conservation of threatened fauna and flora, modelling the impact of habitat loss, modification and fragmentation on terrestrial biota, management of pest plant and animal species, and development of natural resource management policies and plans. This paper reviews the threshold concept from an ecological perspective. It considers the definition, types and behaviour of this phenomenon. The theoretical and empirical evidence for their purported existence is reviewed and their potential utility in biodiversity conservation and natural resource management is discussed, along with key issues relating to their use.     

Facilitating the evolution of resistance to avian malaria in Hawaiian birds

Research has shown that avian malaria plays an important role in limiting the distribution and population sizes of many Hawaiian birds, and that projected climate change is likely to eliminate most disease-free habitat in Hawai’i in the next century. I used a modeling approach, parameterized with demographic data from the literature and the field, to examine alternate management scenarios for the conservation of native Hawaiian birds. I examined the feasibility of using management in the form of rodent control to facilitate the evolution of resistance to malaria by increasing the survival and reproduction of native birds. Analysis of demographic data from seven native species, Akepa (Loxops coccineus), ‘Akohekohe (Palmeria dolei), Elepaio (Chasiempis sandwichensis), Hawai’i’amakihi (Hemignathus virens), Hawai’i creeper (Oreomystis mana), Omao (Myadestes obscurus), and Palila (Loxioides bailleui), suggest that differences in life history cause some species to be more susceptible to local extinctions from the transmission of malaria. Modeling results demonstrated that rodent control at middle, but not high, elevations can facilitate the evolution of resistance to malaria in several species of Hawaiian birds. Advocating a management approach that encourages evolutionary change in endangered species contrasts with the traditional conservation paradigm but it may be the best strategy to reduce the impacts of one of the multiple stressors that have devastated the native bird community of Hawai’i.     

Importance of cryptic species for identifying ‘representative’ units of biodiversity for freshwater conservation

Nested systems of biodiversity classification are commonly used for designating protected area networks in terrestrial and marine realms. Whilst terrestrial-style protected areas are largely inappropriate for freshwater systems, the concepts of ‘representative’ biodiversity and ‘complementarity’ can be borrowed for freshwater conservation. Cryptic species are commonly found in freshwater macroinvertebrates and fish, and most have restricted distributions relative to the described conglomerate ‘species’. This indicates that ‘representative’ and therefore ‘complementary’ units of freshwater biodiversity may be smaller than previously appreciated. Using recently detected cryptic species in atyid shrimps from eastern Australia (Atyidae: Paratya australiensis, Caridina mccullochi and C. indistinca), we tested predictions about regional patterns of cryptic assemblage structure, endemism and Phylogenetic Diversity (PD) at the river scale, and discussed their implications for freshwater conservation. Patterns of distribution in these cryptic shrimp species largely corresponded with published distributional patterns of cryptic species in several freshwater fish in eastern Australia, and indicated the presence of four putative ecoregions within a previously recognised freshwater fish province (Eastern Province). However, some rivers had pronounced cryptic endemism, suggesting that rivers may not be ‘representative’ of one another’s biodiversity even within ecoregions. PD and endemism were largely correlated with one another, as endemics typically co-occurred with widespread species at the river scale. This study indicates that cryptic species can contribute to defining patterns of biodiversity at nested spatial scales that may be important for freshwater conservation.     

Creating a ‘Conservation with Chinese Characteristics’

As China becomes increasingly influential in international affairs, it is important to understand the unique characteristics of Chinese environmental values and policy processes. This is especially true given the rate and scale of China’s environmental impacts on natural ecosystems from local to international levels. Currently, however, Chinese conservation values, policies and practices are not well-integrated. We identify four systemic barriers to conservation in China that contribute to this poor integration: weak rule of law; unclear land tenure; top down government authority; and disconnects between scientific research and management implementation. To advance China toward an environmentally secure future, we suggest that combining traditional Chinese environmental values with contemporary science and international conservation practices will help to create a ‘Conservation with Chinese Characteristics’. We do not believe that traditional values should replace modern science and management. Rather, we suggest that, given the cultural and political conditions in China today, using traditional values to frame contemporary environmental science and ecosystem-based management may create stronger societal support for conservation implementation.     

Use of the Biological Flora framework in the United Kingdom Overseas Territories: Euphorbia origanoides L.

The United Kingdom Overseas Territories (UKOTs) are globally important for a high diversity of endemic and threatened plant species but are poorly represented in plant ecological literature. This lack of ecological research is compounded by a lack of funding and skills. Cost effective approaches of compiling conservation relevant information are required. Here we present the first examination of a species from the UKOTs presented within the standard framework of a Biological Flora. This framework allows a convenient way to compile ecological information and assess missing data. The account reviews all available information on Euphorbia origanoides L. (Ascension spurge) from Ascension Island (South Atlantic Ocean) relevant to understanding its ecology and conservation, including soil chemistry, climate and plant community data. E. origanoides is an endemic perennial, found in dry, lava plains of Ascension Island with soils comprised of weathered volcanic scoria. E. origanoides has suffered habitat loss through the introduction of invasive species and survival in the wild is currently under threat. We relate the information gathered for this Biological Flora to the conservation of the species in the wild and propose the framework should be used as one way of compiling information relevant for conservation managers. The framework is beneficial as it allows an evidence-based approach to conservation but also permits the prioritisation of research and can help conservation managers to meet targets for the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation.     

Fire regimes and the conservation of sandstone heath in monsoonal northern Australia: frequency, interval, patchiness

Heathlands are scattered across fire-prone monsoonal northern Australia mostly in dissected sandstone terrain. Such communities, although floristically depauperate by comparison with heathlands in southern Australia and southern Africa especially, share in common a relatively high proportion of fire-sensitive, obligate-seeder shrub species. The paper explores the implications of frequent fires, and associated short inter-fire intervals, on populations of obligate-seeder shrub species occurring in extensive heathlands occupying the western rim of the Arnhem Plateau, in the Northern Territory. Two studies are presented. With reference to published data concerning the maturation times of regional obligate-seeder shrubs, the first study reports on minimum and maximum intervals between fires determined from a 16-year fire history, 1980-1995, for the Plateau landform unit in Kakadu National Park, interpreted from LANDSAT MSS imagery. While species with maturation times of 5 or more years are common in the regional heath flora, minimum fire interval data for each 1 ha pixel indicate that 69% of heath habitats had been burnt at least once by fires recurring within 3 years, and 64% had a maximum fire interval of 5 years; 11% burnt only once or remained unburnt. The second study reports on the effects of an unreplicated experimental fire, involving observations on ca. 4000 individual shrubs, on ensuing heath floristic composition and abundance, undertaken 3 years after a wildfire had burnt the same site. Despite the experimental fire being highly patchy, substantial declines in the occurrence and density of many obligate-seeder shrub species were attended by increases in many herbs, including flammable grasses. Three years after the experimental fire the number of obligate-seeder shrubs was still less than half that pre-fire despite significant recruitment of some species in latter years. Collectively, these and other published data indicate that minimum fire return intervals of at least 4-5 years are required for conserving rapidly maturing tropical sandstone heath obligate-seeder shrubs, and longer still on sites comprising species with longer maturation times. For conservation management purposes individual fires should be small (especially in relation to the extent of any one tract of heath), patchy, and recurring intervals between fires should be varied as far as practicable.     

Invasive plant suppresses charismatic seabird - the construction of attitudes towards biodiversity management options

Public attitudes towards biodiversity issues and the value judgments underlying biodiversity management and conservation are still poorly understood. This has raised serious concerns regarding the effective use of public participation in biodiversity policy making. We conducted quantitative face-to-face interviews with members of the general public in southeast Scotland to assess attitudes towards biodiversity management and examine attitude formation. For this, we applied social psychological attitude-behaviour theories to a case study investigating biodiversity management options for an island ecosystem in which the abundance of a charismatic seabird, the Atlantic puffin (Fratercula arctica) is compromised by the expansion of a tall invasive plant, tree mallow (Lavatera arborea). We found that attitudes as expressed by members of the public are informed by both value- and knowledge-based elements. Our research provides clear support for the notion that, in a conservation context, value-based principles matter to the public. Out of a set of seven conservation-related values, ‘balance’ and ‘naturalness’ were important factors that related strongly to the respondents’ attitudes. These relationships were even stronger for individuals emotionally involved with the topic. Other value-based principles such as uniqueness, autochthony and endangeredness of the species involved appeared to be of lesser relevance. The findings provide evidence that attitudes can be considered as distinct constructs that offer valuable and meaningful information to biodiversity policymakers and managers, and allow empirical insights into the way value judgments influence biodiversity management and conservation.     

Map of bird sensitivities to wind farms in Scotland: A tool to aid planning and conservation

Government targets for renewable energy have led to a huge increase in wind farm proposals. Because of its high wind resource, Scotland has more proposed wind farms than any other UK country. Scotland’s upland habitats support many birds of conservation concern, leading to potential conflict with wind farms.To help reduce this conflict, a map of bird sensitivities has been created to guide the location of onshore wind farms in Scotland, based on distributions of 16 bird species of conservation priority and statutory Special Protection Areas. The likely sensitivity of each species to wind farms was assessed from literature, based on foraging ranges, collision risk and sensitivity to disturbance. This information was used to buffer species’ locations to identify areas of ‘high’ or ‘medium’ sensitivity. Individual species maps were converted to 1-km square resolution, and a composite map for all species created by selecting the highest sensitivity rating for each square.The map indicates greater bird sensitivity in northwest Scotland, particularly the Highlands, Western and Northern Isles. Overall, 37% of Scotland is classified as ‘high’, 25% as ‘medium’ and 38% as ‘low/unknown’ sensitivity. The overlap of the mapped species with proposed and existing wind farm developments was assessed and species for which cumulative effects of multiple wind farms are of particular concern identified. Within a Scottish context, bean goose, red kite and hen harrier showed the greatest overlap. Applications and limitations of the approach are discussed.     

Rapid beetle community convergence following experimental habitat restoration in a mined peat bog

The rate of recovery of invertebrate communities following habitat restoration has received little attention, despite the importance of invertebrates in ecosystem dynamics. In experimental trials in a mined peat bog in New Zealand, we compared the short-term rate of beetle community re-assembly at sites restored using management techniques varying in cost and effort to implement, and subsequently examined the long-term rate of beetle community convergence towards the ‘target’ community structure of an undisturbed peat bog. There was a direct relationship between the rate of beetle community re-assembly and the cost and effort applied to plant community restoration treatments (processed peat with no seed, processed peat with seed, and direct habitat translocation). To test the longer term rate of beetle community convergence following habitat restoration, we monitored beetle assemblages on a chronosequence of experimental habitat islands in which restoration was initiated 1, 13, 24, 25, 42 and 72 months previously. With increasing age, the plant community became more diverse and structurally complex, and beetle community composition converged rapidly on the target community structure of an undisturbed peat bog. Using a simple linear regression analysis on ordination axis scores, we obtained the quantitative prediction that the beetle community on restored islands would converge on the average community composition of an undisturbed peat bog within just 7-8.5 years. Our results clearly show that rapid invertebrate community re-assembly can occur in direct response to management techniques focused on establishing vegetation structure. Even the use of a low-cost restoration technique (processed peat with seed added) was effective in initiating remarkably rapid invertebrate community re-assembly in cutover peat bogs within 10 years.     

The importance of chemical communication studies to mammalian conservation biology: A review

The relevance of chemical communication to mammalian conservation is not often the focus of scientific investigation. Our review identifies and discusses ten key areas in which the study of chemical communication aids conservation behaviour. Articles (n = 140) were revealed, most were concerned with population monitoring (22.50%), reducing human-wildlife conflicts (18.93), influencing habitat selection (18.57%), increasing welfare of captive animals (12.86%), encouraging captive breeding (12.86%), reducing predation (5.71%), and increasing the success of release programmes (5.00%). Few articles (<4%) were found relating olfactory studies to health status of wild populations, reducing hybridization or as indication of pollution. A growing number of articles are addressing how olfactory studies may aid conservation, but more rigorous experimental testing and manipulations are required. The vast majority of studies linking olfaction with conservation involved the population monitoring of wild carnivores. We suggest that animal behavioural studies and manipulations of chemical communication can have significant impacts on conservation in these areas, which should be further developed to generate practical applications. Areas of future study include chemical communication of aquatic mammalian species, the transfer of olfactory cues under water, and the identification of genetic markers that may link ‘personality’ with olfactory responses. Linking olfactory studies to fitness, either on an individual or population scale, particularly in a wider ecological context is more likely to increase conservation value. Animal translocations and reintroduction programmes may offer a means to do this and could be an important area to direct future studies.     

Regional problems need integrated solutions: Pest management and conservation biology in agroecosystems

Ecosystems produce goods and services that are essential for the wellbeing of humans and other organisms. The earth’s expanding human population is altering both pattern and process in ecosystems, and hence is impacting the provision of ecosystem goods and services at a variety of scales. Food production and other ecosystem services, such as the many benefits provided by forests, are not exclusive of one another at a regional scale. Although it is becoming obvious that uncoordinated local management is inadequate to address regional ecosystem changes in the face of regional drivers of change, few regional governments have addressed the need for holistic landscape management of regional ecosystem services. We compare and contrast two regional programs, the agricultural agenda of integrated pest management (IPM) and an as-yet hypothetical, fragmentation-oriented conservation agenda that we term ‘Regional Fragmentation Management’ (RFM). IPM has a strong practical foundation but is weak on theory. RFM has a stronger theoretical base, but is weak on practice and has mainly focused on protected areas. Both programs address only a small subset of the larger question of how to effectively maintain regional production of regional ecosystem services. Some of the successes of IPM practitioners in building institutions and achieving societal acceptance for their program, particularly in relation to regionally coordinated (‘areawide’) pest management, suggest that regional ecosystem management is plausible. IPM offers some ingredients of an institutional role model for a broader, more ambitious program that seeks to manage regional ecosystem services and processes in a sustainable manner. As the looming crisis of global climate change brings a potential window of opportunity for the introduction of novel approaches for managing deforestation, closer synergies between conservation and agriculture at regional scales seem not only possible, but essential.     

Habitat fragmentation in an urban environment: large and small fragments support different arthropod assemblages

We investigated the effects of fragmentation due to urbanisation on the species composition and functional roles of ants, beetles, spiders, flies and wasps. The study was conducted in 21 fragments of heath and woodland in south-eastern Australia classed as either ‘small’ (? 4 km²) or ‘large’ (? 80 km²). Arthropods were pitfall-trapped and identified to family or genus and morphospecies and microhabitat characteristics were recorded. Large fragments did not support more species per unit area than small fragments for most arthropods, although there were more species of ants per sampling unit in small than large woodland fragments, mainly due to a higher frequency of generalist species in smaller fragments. Large and small habitat fragments contained different assemblages of spiders, wasps and ants, indicating that predators and parasitoids are affected more strongly than other trophic groups. Arthropod assemblages within larger fragments where grids were furthest apart were less similar than those within smaller fragments where grids were closer together in woodland, but not in heath. The responses of arthropods to fragmentation suggest that, in addition to effects of reduced area and proximity to the urban matrix, changes in fire regimes and the degradation of habitats resulting from urbanisation, may have a role in altering arthropod assemblages, particularly affecting those species belonging to higher trophic levels. Management goals for urban remnants should identify mechanisms for controlling fire and anthropogenic disturbance such that they closely resemble the levels of these factors in larger fragments.     

Factoring species, non-species values and threats into biodiversity prioritisation across the ecoregions of Africa and its islands

Biodiversity in Africa, Madagascar and smaller surrounding islands is both globally extraordinary and increasingly threatened. However, to date no analyses have effectively integrated species values (e.g., richness, endemism) ‘non-species’ values (e.g., migrations, intact assemblages), and threats into a single assessment of conservation priorities. We present such an analysis for the 119 ecoregions of Africa, Madagascar and smaller islands. Biodiversity is not evenly distributed across Africa and patterns vary somewhat among taxonomic groups. Analyses of most vertebrates (i.e., birds, mammals, amphibians) tend to identify one set of priority ecoregions, while plants, reptiles, and invertebrates highlight additional areas. ‘Non-species’ biological values are not correlated with species measures and thus indicate another set of ecoregions. Combining species and non-species values is therefore crucial for assembling a comprehensive portfolio of conservation priorities across Africa. Threats to biodiversity are also unevenly distributed across Africa. We calculate a synthetic threat index using remaining habitat, habitat block size, degree of habitat fragmentation, coverage within protected areas, human population density, and the extinction risk of species. This threat index is positively correlated with all three measures of biological value (i.e., richness, endemism, non-species values), indicating that threats tend to be focused on the region’s most important areas for biodiversity. Integrating biological values with threats allows identification of two distinct sets of ecoregion priority. First, highly imperilled ecoregions with many narrow endemic species that require focused actions to prevent the loss of further habitat leading to the extinction of narrowly distributed endemics. Second, less threatened ecoregions that require maintenance of large and well-connected habitats that will support large-scale habitat processes and associated area-demanding species. By bringing these data together we can be much more confident that our set of conservation recommendations serves the needs of biodiversity across Africa, and that the contribution of different agencies to achieving African conservation can be firmly measured against these priorities.