Beyond parks and reserves: The ethics and politics of conservation with a case study from Perú

This paper elaborates, analyzes, and partly defends the normative and empirical foundations of a “social ecology” model for natural habitat and resource management. This model treats human societies as being irreducibly integrated with the natural systems in which they are embedded. It argues that any concept of biodiversity necessarily embodies cultural values for it to be operationalized for conservation decisions. It accepts the legitimacy of tradeoffs between biodiversity conservation and other values including human resource development. It prioritizes local control of decisions in regions which are often targeted by Northern conservationists: areas of the South, where cultural choices have led to the persistence of high biodiversity. This model is used to analyze an ongoing dispute over biodiversity conservation and natural resource control in Perú: the conflict over Kandozi territory in the Abanico del Pastaza. What the Kandozi want is more than just a rejection of what has been criticized as the national park/fortress model of conservation. It consists of an assertion of local institutionalized control over traditional lands which goes well beyond the purview of the usual alternative of the fortress model: the biosphere reserve model of external and internal joint control of natural resources. To the remarkable extent that Kandozi resource management practices have succeeded in maintaining biotic richness and variety in spite of multiple encroachments, the empirical evidence demands that today’s conservationists pay adequate attention to these practices and the social institutions in which they are embedded. But, beyond such prudential concerns, the social ecology model of habitat conservation accepts the normative claims that resident communities should have control over their lands and livelihoods and that they should be allowed to maintain their habitats as cultural landscapes of their choice.     

Tackling degradation of a seminatural landscape: options and evaluations

Degradation of a seminatural pond landscape in North West England has been occurring for at least 150 years. The remaining resource of 35 000 ponds is being reduced by natural succession, but is also being anthropogenically modified, by land development, neglect and from poorly considered management regimes. This paper defines degradation for the individual pond and for the pond landscape. Implications of degradation are drawn. Four existing approaches developed to combat degradation (including legal strictures, planning rules and voluntary conservation schemes) are evaluated with reference to both ecological and socio‐economic principles. Finally, a new planning philosophy and structure in the United Kingdom is assessed for its ability to combat degradation; particular emphasis is placed upon an ecological networks approach which offers new hope for conservation of both pond habitats and for their distinctive fauna and flora. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

关于水土保持生态修复工程中几个问题的思考

 生态修复是近年来水土保持生态建设的新思路,但目前对其概念的界定尚不统一。为了探讨水土保持生态修复工程的理论,加速生态修复实践的进一步深入,讨论了生态修复的定义、水土保持与生态修复的关系,提出了实施生态修复的思路。     

Indigenous collaborative research for wildlife management in Amazonia: The case of the Kaxinawá, Acre, Brazil

Wildlife is a critical food resource throughout Amazonia. Consequently, adaptive management based on continued resource evaluation is essential to ensure long-term sustainable use of Amazonian wildlife. Since 1996, the Kaxinawá people of Western Amazonia have participated in a capacity-building program focused on natural resource management leading to the development of a territorial management plan that includes monitoring of wildlife use. In this study, we report the results of collaborative management-oriented research where hypotheses designed by the Kaxinawá about game availability within their territory were supported by the analysis of self-monitoring hunting data collected through a methodology designed in collaboration with conservation biologists. Results support Kaxinawá hypotheses that: (1) there is variation of game availability among villages in Kaxinawá territory; (2) preferred game species are more available to those villages closest to the isolated headwaters; and (3) previous land and wildlife use, present density of villages, and human population density are the main factors causing observed variations of game availability. The results of this study suggest the relevance and value of long-term participatory studies to complement short-terms academic studies of biodiversity and natural resource use and management.     

重要农业文化遗产价值体系构建及评估(I):价值体系构建与评价方法研究

重要农业文化遗产是一类典型的资源可持续利用保护地,其水土管理方式、知识体系、文化内涵等对于协调社区生计与生态保护具有积极作用。这类传统生计区域往往与自然保护地毗邻或在其范围内,对其蕴含的价值进行识别与保护,不仅是提升农业文化遗产管理的诉求,也能够支持自然保护地体系优化与功能区划管理。本研究对重要农业文化遗产价值进行系统识别,基于农业文化遗产的广义概念与全球重要农业文化遗产的狭义概念,借鉴多类型自然保护地与世界遗产、生态系统服务功能、自然资源资产等价值体系,从农业文化遗产的复合性、活态性与战略性特点出发,把握其核心价值,构建重要农业文化遗产的价值体系。在充分吸收生态系统服务价值评估、自然资源资产价值核算、自然文化遗产价值评估、品牌价值评估等定量或定性评价方法的基础上,提出一套完整的重要农业文化遗产货币价值评价方法。以系统科学和可持续发展理论为基础,重要农业文化遗产价值主要包括存在价值和潜在价值,其中存在价值以载体价值和服务价值为核心,服务价值则可细分为产品价值、生态价值、社会价值等9类,25个具体指标。研究进一步提出存在价值的评价方法与潜在指标可能测算路径。构建的重要农业文化遗产价值体系以及所提出的评价方法,可为以价值保护为基础进行农业文化遗产管理提供理论依据,为管理决策者在区域保护与发展协调决策中提供科学基础。     

近10 a黄河三角洲LUCC及其驱动因素分析

研究滨海脆弱生态区的土地利用/土地覆被时空变化过程,可以为区域土地资源的规划、开发和管理提供科学依据。该文应用遥感和GIS技术,分析黄河三角洲区域1995－2004年间土地利用/土地覆被的时空变化特征,并对区域土地利用/土地覆被变化的驱动因子进行了探讨。结果表明,近10 a来黄河三角洲的土地利用/土地覆被类型发生了复杂变化;黄河三角洲土地利用/土地覆被动态受到自然因素和人类活动的共同作用,而人类活动是近10 a区域土地利用/土地覆被变化的主要驱动因子。尽管近年来黄河三角洲的开发取得了快速发展,但部分人类经济活动给区域土地资源及其生态环境的可持续发展带来巨大压力,甚至导致区域土地质量的进一步退化。     

基于生态足迹的传统农业地区可持续发展评价—— 以贵州省从江县为例

由于自然条件的限制和历史等原因,贵州省从江县至今还保持着比较完好的稻田养鱼传统农业生产方式,并形成了独具特色的农业文化遗产.为全面认识这一农业文化遗产的价值,并为其合理保护提供理论依据和科学基础,本文分析了从江县2007年的生态足迹及其构成,总结了传统农业地区的资源消耗特点以及传统农业在区域生态平衡、资源消耗、可持续发展等方面所起的重要作用.研究表明,从江县居民对食物和住房的需求很高,分别占总需求的45.9%和33.3%,导致从江县耕地和林地生态足迹构成生态足迹的主体部分;相比之下,从江县的化石能源地生态足迹仅占总生态足迹的3.0%,而由林地提供的主要燃料柴薪才是能源生态足迹的主体部分,这与资源消耗较高的工业化地区明显不同.资源的低消耗使得从江县可以维持在生态平衡状态,人均生态盈余为0.058 1 hm2.可见,传统农业通过影响人们的农业生产方式和生活消费模式,不仅对区域的生态平衡维持和文化传承起着重要作用,且对区域社会经济可持续发展有重要意义.     

The values of soil animals for conservation biology

It has taken time for the international community to accept the idea of biodiversity values, a concept which had previously been restricted to the limited aesthetic and touristic aspects of wildlife. This situation changed following the International Convention on Biodiversity in Rio de Janeiro (1992), which focussed on “the forgotten environmental problem” of biodiversity erosion and made the first clear reference to the values of living species. Biodiversity values refer to direct or indirect, economic or non-economic interest, a given species or ecosystem may represent for human populations. These values are generally split into intrinsic and instrumental (use) values, the last category itself being divided into direct and indirect economic values. Obviously, each of these values carries different weights, and cannot be considered as being weighted equally in terms of justification for species or ecosystem conservation. Soil is probably one of the most species-rich habitats of terrestrial ecosystems, especially if the definition is extended to related habitats like vertebrate faeces, decaying wood, and humus of hollow trees (i.e. epiphytic soils). The diversity of soil communities (sensu lato) thus probably encompasses a large part of terrestrial animals. This highly speciose fauna has been the subject of recent research efforts, and current trends in soil fauna studies include aspects of biology, autecology, ecotoxicology, or functional ecology. During the past 20 years, recognition of the importance of soil fauna in the functioning of soils and by extension of terrestrial ecosystems has been continuously growing, ending in some important applications in agronomy. However, despite the general agreement about the ecological importance of soil fauna and its economic consequences, the absence of concern about this group from conservationists in their studies is conspicuous. This paper aims at presenting soil fauna within the scope of conservation biology concepts, trying to identify the different values of soil fauna and how they participe to the provisioning of key ecosystem services. Finally, the enormous gap between their recognised usefulness and their consideration in protection policies is discussed.     

‘Ecological forestry’ and eucalypt forests managed for wood production in south-western Australia

The model of ‘ecological forestry’ has evolved as a part of the development of the concept of ecosystem management. ‘Ecological forestry’ emphasises that manipulation of a forest ecosystem should consider, and as far as practicable work within the limits of, natural disturbance patterns prior to extensive human alteration of the landscape. This paper evaluates the extent to which forest management practices in jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) and karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) forests of south-western Australia align with this view of the characteristics and appropriate silviculture of ‘ecological forestry’. Characteristics and appropriate silviculture of ‘ecological forestry’ are evaluated in relation to (i) the stand level decisions of stand structure and harvest timing and (ii) the landscape level decisions of harvest levels and age structures, and spatial patterns of harvest. Forest management in south-western Australia is found to align with appropriate silviculture under this model of ‘ecological forestry’. Additionally, the landscape triad of areas managed to ‘ecological forestry’ principles, conservation reserves and areas managed to production forestry is in place in the south-western forests of Australia. Strengths and weaknesses in the model of ‘ecological forestry’ and the ability to interpret consistency of practices in the forests of south-western Australia with the characteristics of ‘ecological forestry’ are identified.     

Linking the gaps between conservation research and conservation management of rare dipterocarps: A case study of Shorea lumutensis

To conserve a rare plant, conservation programs must be guided by the biological attributes of the species. What constitutes the most critical biological information for plant conservation has been the issue of discussion for the last 30 years. Most scientists promote an approach that is either ecological or genetic in emphasis. Ecological and genetic processes will often interact synergistically to influence the population viability and to determine the persistence of populations in the long run. Consequently, conservation management of plant species, in addition to ecological information, requires a robust understanding of underlying genetic processes as well as the variation within and between populations. Conservation has a cost and the resources available for conservation programs are always limited. Therefore, conservation management strategies should not only be scientifically justified but also practical in terms of resource availability. Shorea lumutensis is a rare and endemic dipterocarp in Peninsular Malaysia. A comprehensive research activity was initiated to assess the population ecology and population genetics of S. lumutensis to elucidate specific ecological and genetic requirements and subsequently to set conservation strategies and priorities. This paper is apparently the first attempt at applying both the ecological and genetic approaches into conservation management of a rare dipterocarp. In addition, this paper also attempts to link the gaps between conservation research and conservation management in a realistic manner. It is our hope that this study will serve as a model for the study of other rare dipterocarps which should be given priority for conservation.     

中国农业文化遗产保护的思考与建议*

随着经济全球化和工业化的深入发展,农业的多功能性日益凸显。农业除提供食品、纤维等商品产出的经济功能外,还具有与农村环境、农村农业景观、农村生存与就业、食品质量卫生、国家粮食安全保障、农村农业文化以及动物福利等非商品产出相关的环境和社会功能。农业文化遗产的形成与农业的多功能性密不可分。农业文化遗产概念的提出为农业多功能保护、促进农业可持续发展等提供了机遇和挑战。目前,国际社会对于农业文化遗产的重视程度不断提高。我国农业文化遗产数量众多,但随着现代化和工业化的发展,农业文化遗产面临各种威胁,我国对农业文化遗产的保护和可持续利用也给予了广泛关注。本文分析了农业文化遗产的概念和我国农业文化遗产的保护和发展现状,探讨了我国农业文化遗产的价值和意义,主要包括传统动植物品种的保护与利用价值、传统农艺的保护与利用价值、传统中兽医技术的保护与利用价值、传统农业民俗的保护与利用价值和传统农业景观的保护与利用价值等。同时基于这些价值分析提出了我国农业文化遗产保护的政策选择与建议。     

关于我国水土保持科学的内涵与研究领域问题

 根据《中国大百科全书·农业》及《中国大百科全书·水利》中水土保持条目的定义说明中国水土保持科学的内涵及范畴。指出:水土保持的内涵是山丘区及风沙区水土资源的保护、改良与合理利用;水土保持科学的研究范畴包括水土流失规律、水土保持规划、水土流失综合治理技术措施、水土保持管理、水土保持效益评价等。还提出了近期需要特别重视的研究课题。     

未来气候及土地利用变化对水源涵养量的影响

“四水四定”背景下，科学量化变化环境下城镇或小流域未来水源涵养量是水资源管理、水利规划和水生态保护等工作的重要基础。水源涵养量尺度转化是目前生态水文学研究的难点之一，较高精细尺度研究是尺度转化的重要切入点。以秦岭北麓灞河流域为研究区，应用SWAT模型、CA-Markov模型、ArcGIS、RClimDex等分析工具，评估NEX-GDDP-CMIP6高分辨率数据集对灞河流域月流量模拟能力，选取最优气候模式，模拟未来土地利用变化，分析灞河流域未来30年水源涵养量演变趋势，旨在为秦岭生态保护、水资源管理、土地利用保护等提供基础数据。结果表明：(1)NEX-GDDP-CMIP6高分辨率数据集ACCESS-CM2、ACCESS-ESM1-5、CanESM5等9个气候模式对月平均流量均值模拟效果较好，对极端流量模拟效果较差，NESM3气候模式相比其他8个气候模式有较好的流量模拟效果。(2)NESM3气候模式低估极端降水情况，高估持续干燥天数，月尺度降水数据模拟能力高于年尺度和日尺度。(3)通过Kappa系数检验CA-Markov模型在灞河流域土地利用变化方面具有较好的适用性。(4)在土地利用和气候...     

On inclusion of ecosystem services in the assessment of damage from land degradation

In the assessment of damage arising from land degradation at the Training and Experimental Soil–Ecological Center of Moscow State University, the cost of unfulfilled and underfulfilled ecosystem surfaces of soils should be taken into account. The following soil services were considered for the territory studied: direct provision with resources, protection, maintenance of ecosystem life and cultural services. A relationship between the concepts of ecosystem services and ecological functions of soils is shown. The concept of function is wider in some respect than the concept associated with it. In the definition of ecosystem service, only the manifestation of the soil function, which can have an economic interpretation, is selected. A simulation of ecosystem services proposed in the ecological and economic evaluation of damage arising from land degradation can be a real mechanism of nature conservation and development of systems of sustainable management at various levels of the administrative structure of the country.     

关于推行水土保持生态村建设的构想

建设水土保持生态村,就是以行政村为单位,以水土保持为中心,建设水土流失得以控制,生态环境得以良性循环,人口、资源、环境得以协调发展的生态农业村。人均土地面积、人口自然增长率、水土保持治理程度、人均耕地、人均基本农田、人均林地、年人均收入等,是生态村建设的量化指标。生态村可分为初级生态村、标准生态村、先进生态村,先进生态村由各级政府的水行政主管部门予以命名。     

The paradox of keystone species persecuted as pests: A call for the conservation of abundant small mammals in their native range

Small mammals, such as European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), plateau pikas (Ochotona curzoniae) and prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.), traditionally have been perceived as pests and targeted for control within their native ranges, where they perform essential ecosystem roles and are considered keystone species. These species can reach high densities, and have been subjected to eradication campaigns because of their putative negative impact on natural habitats and agriculture and their competition with livestock for forage. Eradication programmes have been a main factor causing sharp declines of these species in their natural ranges. Paradoxically, they are keystone species where they are abundant enough to be perceived as pests. The term “pest” is usually a social perception that is rarely supported by scientific data, whereas there is considerable scientific evidence of the key ecological roles played by these species. We call for the conservation of these species and present a conceptual model regarding the management of their populations. Where they occur at high numbers, and hence their effects on biodiversity are still of crucial importance, the persecution of these species should be avoided and their natural habitats preserved. In areas with high conservation value, but where these species occur at low densities, management efforts should aim to increase their density. In areas of high commercial value, managers ideally should consider changing prioritization of the area to high conservation value by purchasing the land or obtaining conservation easements. In situations with high commercial value and demonstrable low conservation concern, small mammals could be reduced humanely.     

Interactions among Scientists, Managers and the Public in Defining Research Priorities and Management Strategies for Marine and Coastal Resources: Is the Red Sea Marine Peace Park a New Paradigm?

It has been assumed that marine habitats and resources, especially, are almost unlimited, and that if one habitat became degraded or a particular fisheries resource depleted, there always would be another to replace it. Therefore, natural resource management principals are beginning to include human motivation and responses as part of the marine and coastal systems that are being studied and managed. Managers of marine resources face the challenge of balancing conservation and development objectives in the context of the inherent uncertainty of natural systems and the political and social pressures of human systems. Natural resource managers, scientists and the general public seem to share a vision for the future as a world in which societal and economic decisions will be strongly coupled with an increasingly comprehensive understanding of the environment. This in turn will lead to both socio-economic health and ecosystem health. A paradigm shift is being seen in the evolution of the role of scientists in society from simply observers of the natural world with tenuous linkages to resource managers and the public, to partners in modern society's quest for answers to pressing questions related to sustainable use and conservation of natural resources. A US Agency for International Development supported, joint effort between the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Government of Israel and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan to conduct a comprehensive research and monitoring program directed at the new Binational Red Sea Marine Pearce Park will be a pioneering effort to employ and test this new paradigm.     

Exploring the case for a national‐scale soil conservation and soil condition framework for evaluating and reporting on environmental and land use policies

It has long been realized that the conservation of soil capital and ecosystem services are of paramount importance, resulting in a growing case for a change in attitude and policymaking in respect of soils. Current UK and EU approaches are risk‐based and focused on measures to manage and remediate the adverse impact of current policies and practices directed at maximizing productivity and profit, rather than one of resource conservation. Increasing soil loss and degradation is evidence that current policy is not working and a new approach is needed. In the UK there is governmental ambition to progress towards natural capital‐led land use policies but, in the absence of a framework to determine the relative condition of the soil resource, the delivery of sustainable soil conservation policies will continue to be inhibited. Common Standards Monitoring (CSM ) is an established monitoring and management framework (based on ecosystem structure, function and process) and has been effectively deployed for almost two decades by the UK Government for the monitoring and reporting of key biological and earth science natural capital and ecosystem services from ‘field’ to local, regional and national levels to the European Commission. It is argued that a CSM for soils could be developed for the UK 's soil resources as well as for those elsewhere, and would be able to deliver a conservation rather than the current risk‐based approach. It is capable of accommodating the complexities and variation in soil types and functions and potentially being practical and cost‐effective in its implementation.     

流域治理效益的环境经济学分析方法

 流域治理效益不仅包括有效实物产出价值,而且更多地表现为一种环境资源价值。前者主要包括经济作物、林业、畜牧业和水产养殖业等增加的产值;后者主要是通过流域治理可以涵养水源、保护土地资源、固碳制氧转化太阳能、防风固沙、减免山洪等自然灾害、减少泥沙淤积和保护生物多样性等改善生态环境,改善人类生存环境、促进各项产业发展等社会环境资源价值。基于劳动价值论、边际效用价值论和市场价值论等经济理论,用市场价值法、恢复费用法和影子工程法等建立了流域治理效益价值评估的指标体系和生态环境价值分析计算方法,为流域治理效益的价值评估建立了基础。     

农业文化遗产中传统知识的概念与保护——以普洱古茶园与茶文化系统为例

传统知识不仅是地方社区内居民与自然环境长期适应中所积累的经验智慧,也是农业文化遗产的结构性存在,对遗产系统具有支持作用。因此,传统知识的传承保护是农业文化遗产保护工作的重要内容。本文通过归纳分析当前相关国际公约及研究中对于传统知识的定义及内涵,结合农业文化遗产特征将农业文化遗产中的传统知识定义为"农业文化遗产内,居民在长期生产生活过程中,围绕农业所积累的与生计维持、资源管理、生物多样性保护、精神信仰维持等多个方面密切相关的知识、创新及实践",可分为生计维持类传统知识、生物多样性保护类传统知识、传统技艺类传统知识、文化类传统知识及自然资源管理类传统知识5类。文章通过梳理农业文化遗产与传统知识的相关关系,以普洱古茶园与茶文化系统为例,结合遗产地实地情况,针对当前传统知识保护中所存在的实物载体遭到破坏、传承存在危机、受到旅游业冲击及保护措施相对低效等问题,提出加强保护意识、将传统知识保护纳入遗产系统保护规划、开展传统知识的调查编目、加强传承记录工作及充分利用现有制度对传统知识进行保护等措施,以期为农业文化遗产中传统知识的保护提供建议参考。