Population fragmentation and extinction in the Iberian lynx

We studied the relationship between extinction frequencies of Iberian lynx subpopulations (Lynx pardinus) and their size and isolation during a 35-year period of strong geographic range contraction. At the end of this period there were fewer fragmentation events, fewer lynx populations of small size, and less isolation between them, than in simulated geographic ranges derived from a random distribution of local extinctions. Only small populations occupying <500 km² went extinct. Local extinction in large, self-sustainable populations probably resulted from the sole action of deterministic factors, e.g. widespread prey decline. As compared with large populations, small ones experienced increased contraction per unit occupied area, which may reflect demographic unstability. The consistent effect of isolation on extinction suggests that such unstability was often prompted by reduced immigration and the subsequent disruption of metapopulation equilibrium. Several practical recommendations could be derived. Provided that habitat quality was adequate, a lynx population should avoid extinction within 35 years if it occupied an area of at least 500 km². The persistence of small populations will also be enhanced by minimizing the distances to neighbouring populations within 30 km, and by maximizing the area occupied by these neighbours. Therefore, habitat management, or any other restoration action, directed to expand the area occupied by a small lynx population should be best located at points of its boundaries oriented towards other existing nearby populations.     

Patterns and causes of non-natural mortality in the Iberian lynx during a 40-year period of range contraction

We analyse the spatial and temporal variation in non-natural mortality during a 40-year period of strong contraction of the geographic range of the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus), which shrank from 40,600 to 22,300 km². We recorded 1258 lynx deaths, an average of 31.5 losses per year over the study period. Given the reduced lynx population size, especially later in the period (around 1100 individuals), this level of non-natural mortality may have contributed significantly to the quick decline of the Iberian lynx. Non-natural mortality was not spatially correlated with, and probably did not shape the pattern of, relative abundance of lynx across its core range, but may have reduced its absolute density. Lynx losses were caused mainly by traps set not only for predator control but also for rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), the lynx's staple food. We did not find evidence that non-natural mortality was higher in small lynx populations through edge effects. The highest mortality levels were recorded in regions where small game was a valuable economic resource compared with other activities. Mortality decreased throughout the period because of changes in the prevailing game regimes rather than because of legal protection. The Iberian lynx is now critically endangered and effective protection should be urgently enforced, especially in small game estates, which are environmentally favourable for rabbits but risky for lynx due to predator control. Lynx reintroductions would be better attempted in traditional rabbit hunting areas. Some big game estates where small game is not exploited and predators are not controlled may be good candidates for lynx reintroduction too, provided that habitat is managed towards a suitable interspersion of woody cover and grassland.     

Abundance of wild prey modulates consumption of supplementary food in the Iberian lynx

Food supplementation is increasingly used as a conservation tool. However, little is known about how much supplemental food is used by target populations or the degree to which the abundance of natural food affects the utilization of supplemental food. Long-term supplementation programmes could cause individuals to rely almost exclusively upon supplemental food and, consequently, lose some skills needed to forage efficiently on natural food. This may result in reduced fitness upon discontinuation of supplemental food. The Iberian lynx (Lynxpardinus) preys almost exclusively upon European wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), and some populations are thought to be food limited. We quantified the contribution of supplemented domestic rabbits, whose guard hairs could be distinguished from hairs of wild rabbits, to the diet of the Iberian lynx. We also examined whether the consumption of domestic rabbits varied with the availability of wild rabbits, and with the duration of exposure to supplemental food. Domestic rabbits made up over 50% of the diet. Consumption of domestic rabbits decreased non-linearly as the relative abundance of wild rabbits increased; however, this pattern was true only above a threshold density of one wild rabbit km⁻¹. Below this threshold, supplementation was apparently strictly necessary to retain Iberian lynx. The consumption of domestic rabbits did not increase with the length of the supplementation period. Lynx continued consuming wild rabbits proportionally to their abundance, suggesting lynx did not become dependent upon supplemental food. Understanding how the abundance of natural food modulates consumption of supplemental food may help to adjust supplementation schedules to food availability and to the needs of the target populations.     

Preservation of wide-ranging top predators by site-protection: Black and red kites in Doñana National Park

We used data from a long-term study on two medium-sized generalist predators, the black kite (Milvus migrans) and the red kite (Milvus milvus), to illustrate the complexity of managing wide-ranging top predators by site-protection. The study was conducted between 1989 and 2000 in the Reserva Biológica de Doñana, located at the core of Doñana National Park. Both species occurred at high density and showed high productivity. Black kites were slightly increasing, and red kites showed a non-significant trend. The main cause of breeding failure was nest predation, mainly by mammalian predators, most likely Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) or common genet (Genetta genetta). The main cause of mortality was illegal poisoning, which sharply increased in the late 1990s. Nest-site selection models showed that: (1) black kites selected areas near the seasonal marshes, rich in their main prey species and (2) red kites selected areas rich in marshland and far from the park border, possibly in response to illegal poisoning episodes. Productivity was positively related to the availability of marshland and of open terrestrial habitats for black and red kites, respectively, and negatively related for both species to the density of black kites within 200 m of the nest. Our results showed that: (1) intraguild predation and competition among predators make outcomes of interspecific interactions extremely complex, leading to unpredictable side-effects of priority actions targeting one species at a time and (2) though the park was fenced and patrolled by wardens, the wide ranging behaviour of the two species made park borders permeable to negative human pressures, such as poisoning, leading to extreme edge effects and absence of a true, safe core of the park. Park management needs to be better integrated with its regional socio-economic and cultural context. Education programmes against illegal poisoning should be urgently promoted.     

Behavioural response of a trophic specialist, the Iberian lynx, to supplementary food: Patterns of food use and implications for conservation

Prey scarcity compromises population survival, especially for specialist predators. Supplementary feeding is a management tool that can be applied to reverse the decline of food-limited populations. We analyse how a population of Iberian lynx, a threatened food specialist, initially reacted to, and subsequently used, supplementary food. Twenty-seven feeding stations (FS) with domestic rabbits were placed in the Doñana Biological Reserve, SW Spain, between 2002 and 2005. We recorded lynx tracks inside and around stations to analyse spatio-temporal patterns of use, as well as the performance of several station designs. Iberian lynx used 62% of the FS installed, and consumed most of the supplied food. All station designs were used and food provision apparently covered the energetic needs of the lynx inhabiting the reserve. There was spatial aggregation in the use of the FS. Fourteen weeks were needed on average for lynx to become familiar with feeding stations and making a regular use of the supplementary food. Seasonal variations in consumption frequency appeared to be modulated by fluctuations of wild rabbit numbers throughout its annual cycle as well as by variation in energy demand of breeding females. The Iberian lynx responded positively to our supplementary feeding programme. We show that this technique allows the persistence of lynx populations during long periods in areas where wild rabbits are extremely scarce. Supplementary food may be used to sustain lynx whenever rabbit populations need recovery, as well as in the context of lynx restocking or reintroduction programmes.     

Impact of human dwellings on the distribution of the exotic Argentine ant: a case study in the Doñana National Park, Spain

The invasive Argentine ant Linepithema humile was found in close perimeters to inhabited houses situated in various habitat types in Doñana National Park (Southern Spain). We suggest that the Argentine ant is found in these sites largely due to passive importation by man, but from there may have the potential to spread into surrounding favourable natural habitats. Ant species richness and diversity around houses was similar to that in natural habitats, except in the cases where the Argentine ant dominated, where a considerable lower ant species diversity and richness was observed. The species composition of ants in the immediate vicinity of houses was very different from that of the surrounding natural habitats, although the species composition between houses was very similar, regardless of the type of surrounding natural habitat. Ant species around houses were typically generalists, opportunists or open habitat specialists. Many of these species are considered dominant in that they are characterised by having large nests, aggressive behaviour and mass recruitment in response to attack. However, these species are displaced by the Argentine ant when introduced. Not all ant species show the same responses to invasions by the Argentine ant, and some species, such as Cardiocondyla batesii, Oxyopomyrmex saulcyi or Cataglyphis floricola, may be able to persist for a period following an invasion of the Argentine ant. These species are characterised by small nests and submissive behaviour, and may survive by avoiding conflict with the invasive species.     

Environmental correlates of Eurasian lynx occurrence in Poland - Large scale census and GIS mapping

Based on data from the National Lynx Census, carried out in Poland in 2000-2001, and using Geographic Information System, we analysed nine habitat characteristics in 56 circular sample plots (113 km² each), where lynx (Lynx lynx) have been recorded, and 118 plots with no signs of their presence. In plots with lynx the forest cover (on average 68%) was two times higher and the forest fragmentation lower than in plots with no lynx records. The plots with and without lynx differed significantly also in the number of villages and towns, length of main motorways and railways. Lynx occurrence was negatively associated to human settlements and transportation infrastructure. Logistic regression analysis showed that sufficient forest cover (>40%) and the short straight-line distance to the eastern or southern border of Poland (as a proxy of the distance to a more contiguous range of lynx in Europe) are the two most important variables explaining lynx distribution. We conclude that, in Poland, increase of forest fragmentation and transportation infrastructure may become important threats to lynx populations.     

Modeling the reintroduction of lynx to the southern portion of its range

We modeled populations of lynx (Lynx canadensis) and snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) to determine prey densities required for persistence of lynx translocated to the southern portion of the species' range. The models suggested that a density of 1.1-1.8 hares/h is required for lynx persistence; these densities are higher than those reported for most hare populations across the USA. We found that lynx dispersal and density-independent mortality substantially increased the hare density required for lynx persistence. Reintroduction success was associated with number of release events, total number of animals released, and timing of release relative to the phase of the hare population cycle. However, no release protocol could override the negative effects of low prey density or high population losses. We conclude that successful lynx reintroduction requires high hare densities and minimal anthropogenic disturbance; few areas in the contiguous USA currently posses such qualities.     

Inferring species distributions in the absence of occurrence records: An example considering wolverine (Gulo gulo) and Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) in New Mexico

Information about geographic distributions is required for species conservation and management. Ultimately, this information is derived from records of occurrence. However, the reliability and availability of occurrence records are variable. A conceptual framework for evaluating the reliability of occurrence records is provided. Only records associated with physical evidence, especially a museum voucher specimen, are considered verified. However, errors in species identification or location are possible even for verified records. In addition, biases exist in occurrence records because they generally are collected haphazardly. Other sources of bias include sampling error associated with small areas or range limits and aspects of the species’ biology that make it unlikely to be documented. A practical method is provided for interpreting a species’ distribution in a particular area given a paucity of reliable occurrence records. Factors that must be considered for including such areas of interest within the range of a species include: (1) plausible reason for the paucity of records; (2) continuous suitable habitat between the area of interest and localities of reliable occurrence; and (3) absence of biogeographic breaks in the distribution of other organisms with similar evolutionary histories. The possible distribution of wolverine (Gulo gulo) and Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) in New Mexico provides a case study of this approach. It is concluded that the mountains of north-central New Mexico should be considered within the natural range of wolverine and Canada lynx.     

Differences in the reproductive success and survival of the rufous treecreeper (Climacteris rufa) between a fragmented and unfragmented landscape

The rufous treecreeper (Climacteris rufa) has declined in abundance in the agricultural regions of southwestern Australia. The patterns of decline are well documented, but the processes that threaten population persistence are poorly understood. I compared the reproductive success and survival of the treecreeper between three sites in an unfragmented landscape and four remnant categories (large, small, grazed and ungrazed) in a fragmented, agricultural landscape. Nest success and annual productivity were significantly higher in the unfragmented landscape, but varied between sites and remnant categories within landscapes. Nest success was lowest in grazed remnants and annual productivity was positively associated with territory size in the fragmented landscape. Fledgling survival rates did not differ between landscapes, but there was a trend for juvenile survival rates to be higher in the unfragmented landscape. I used artificial nests to compare relative predation rates between landscapes, and provisioning rates and prey biomass brought to nestlings to assess differences in food availability. There were no landscape differences in predation rates, but provisioning rates to nestlings and total prey biomass were significantly lower in the fragmented landscape. Mean habitat quality was also lower in the fragmented landscape, although it differed between remnant categories. Reduced reproductive success, juvenile survival, food availability and habitat quality may threaten the viability of the rufous treecreeper population living in the fragmented landscape. Limiting the modification of remaining habitat (e.g. removing stock grazing) and improving habitat quality are required to assist in the conservation of this species.     

Habitat fragmentation reduces plant fitness by disturbing pollination and modifying response to herbivory

In fragmented landscapes plant species are often confined to remnants of formerly more widespread habitats, with many of their populations being small and isolated. This study experimentally examined the effects of population size and isolation on pollination, herbivory and reproductive success in the forest herb Phyteuma spicatum (Campanulaceae). In an experiment in which population size and isolation were manipulated using plants from the same origin, population size positively affected pollinator visitation, but did not alter the generally high levels of herbivory. As a result, seed production was higher in large populations. Conversely, plants originating from 14 natural populations of varying size and degree of isolation did not differ in reproductive success when grown in the same environment, suggesting similar attractiveness to pollinators and reproductive potential. The intensity of herbivory, however, was higher in progeny of small populations, at least in terms of the proportion of biomass removed. In both experiments, there were no effects of population isolation. The results suggest (1) that small population size decreases reproductive success via direct negative effects on plant-pollinator interactions, (2) that this pattern is not offset by herbivory, but (3) that herbivory enforces fragmentation effects on pollination by further reducing the number of flowering individuals and (4) that habitat fragmentation may influence plant fitness by affecting plant response to herbivory. The effects of habitat fragmentation on plant populations in present-day landscapes are thus complex, illustrating the need for more integrated studies in conservation biology that take into account both mutualistic and antagonistic plant-animal interactions.     

Field survival of the phytostimulator Azospirillum lipoferum CRT1 and functional impact on maize crop, biodegradation of crop residues, and soil faunal indicators in a context of decreasing nitrogen fertilisation

Heavy nitrogen fertilisation is often implemented in maize cropping systems, but it can have negative environmental effects. Nitrogen-fixing, phytohormone-producing Azospirillum plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) have been proposed as crop inoculants to maintain high yield when decreasing nitrogen fertilisation. In this context, agronomic and ecological effects of the inoculation of maize seeds with the PGPR Azospirillum lipoferum CRT1 were studied in two consecutive years. The inoculant was recovered from maize at 10⁵ CFU g⁻¹ root or higher. Inoculation enhanced root growth and development based on results of root biomass, rooting depth and/or parameters describing root system architecture, and a transient positive effect on shoot height was observed in the first year. Inoculation did not increase yield, but reducing mineral nitrogen fertilisation had only a minor effect on yield. This suggests that the lack of positive effect of the PGPR on yield was due to the fact that the whole field was heavily fertilised in years prior to the start of the experiment. Soil nitrogen levels decreased during the 2 years of the study, and the inoculant had no effect on residual soil nitrogen levels at harvest. Inoculation had no impact on Fusarium symptoms and concentration of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol in maize kernels, but both were influenced by the interaction between inoculation and nitrogen fertilisation level. Inoculation did not influence meso/macrofaunal soil populations, but had a small but significant effect (smaller than the effect of added nitrogen) on decomposition, nitrogen mineralisation and mesofaunal colonisation of maize leaves (in litter bags). Overall, the ecological impact of seed inoculation with the PGPR A. lipoferum CRT1 was small, and its magnitude was smaller than that of chemical nitrogen fertilisation.     

Cross-fostering in coyotes: Evaluation of a potential conservation and research tool for canids

Cross-fostering has been attempted opportunistically with endangered canids as a means of increasing populations. Due to the usefulness of cross-fostering for conservation, an understanding of factors influencing success rates is essential. Using captive coyotes (Canis latrans) as a model, we assessed the willingness of adult pairs to foster young born to other parents. We assessed the efficacy of fostering pups into existing litters (augmentation) and completely switching litters (replacement). We augmented four litters with two pups of similar age when pups were <7 days old. In addition, we replaced four entire litters when pups were <10 days old. We also augmented litters with pups 3-4 and 6-7 weeks of age. Survival, weight gain, and dominance status of pups were monitored for six weeks and compared to four control litters to determine success. All complete litter replacements were successful with survival rates among replaced pups (89.5%) similar to those of control litters (90%). For augmented litters, pup survival was dependent on the age at which fostering occurred. All pups fostered into 4 litters at <1 week of age survived beyond 6 weeks of age, two of three fostering attempts with 3-4-week-old pups succeeded, while neither of two attempts to foster 6-week-old pups succeeded. Surviving fostered pups appeared to be at no disadvantage. Weight gains were similar for pups in all treatments, and there was no evidence of reduced dominance status among fostered pups as compared to natal pups in the same litters. These results illustrate that genetic relatedness is not essential for successful fostering and does not appear to alter dominance patterns; however the age at which pups are fostered may affect the success of fostering attempts.     

Habitat use and spatial dynamics of takhi introduced to Hustai National Park, Mongolia

The successful introduction of captive bred takhi or Przewalski’s horse, Equus ferus przewalskii, into Mongolia in the 1990s is a good example of the benefits of ex situ conservation and one of the few examples of the recovery of an animal after it became extinct in the wild. This is also particularly interesting because virtually nothing was known about how takhi lived before they died out, and the introductions have enabled us to study how they have settled, and their ecology and behaviour within their former natural range. In this paper, we describe the movement, home range size and shape, and habitat use of takhi at one of the release areas, the 570 km² Hustai National Park in Mongolia. Harem home ranges varied between 129 and 2399 ha, with 80% core areas of between 61 and 1196 ha. There was no relationship between range size and harem size, or length of time since release. Initially, harems stayed near their release enclosures, but over time they established home ranges further away. There was little overlap between home ranges of different harems, but neither was there evidence of exclusive range use. The more nutritious vegetation at lower elevations was preferentially selected. Thus the present situation looks good, but, as the population continues to grow, we anticipate that there will be potential problems related to intraspecific competition for water and vegetation resources, and the potential for hybridisation with domestic horses belonging to the local people. We consider the time it may take for takhi to reach carrying capacity within Hustai National Park and emphasise that continual monitoring of the population is essential because interventional management is likely to be required in the future.     

Feral pigs in Namadgi National Park, Australia: dynamics, impacts and management

Feral pigs (Sus scrofa) have spread through Namadgi National Park (NNP) in south-eastern Australia since the early 1960s at a mean rate of 4 km/year. Pigs were abundant (approximately 1-2 pigs km⁻²) during the mid-1980s. Research from 1985 to 2000 inclusive has demonstrated a positive curved relationship across years between the frequency of occurrence of pig rooting and pig abundance (R²=0.48; P<0.001) and the extent of ground rooting; more pigs, more rooting. The ground rooting decreased plant species richness. There was a negative curved relationship between plant species richness and the extent of pig rooting at two sites (R²=0.81; P<0.0001 and R²=0.67; P<0.0001), with plant richness declining to zero with intensive pig rooting. Since the mid 1980s intensive pig control work has resulted in a significant (R²=0.39; P<0.001) decline in pig abundance with an annual instantaneous rate of change (r) of −0.15 between 1985 and 2000 inclusive. The results and their implications for biodiversity conservation and feral pig management are discussed.     

Demography of the Namibian cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus jubatus

Namibian cheetahs have suffered, and continue to suffer, high levels of removal due to conflict with local farmers, and it is important to understand the demography of this population in order to determine its likely persistence. Examination of cheetahs reported live-trapped or killed by local farmers, combined with subsequent information from radio-telemetry, allowed demographic parameters such as sex ratios, age and social structure, litter size, interbirth intervals and survivorship to be estimated for cheetahs on Namibian farmlands. Cub mortality was relatively low, but adult mortality was high, particularly for males, and peaked at 5-6 years of age. Neither marking nor relocating cheetahs seemed to affect survivorship, and there was no difference in survivorship between the sexes. Time spent in captivity did not appear to affect survival after release. These findings will be useful in formulating recommendations regarding the conservation and sustainable utilization of cheetah populations outside protected areas.     

A nine-year study of successful breeding in a Bonelli’s eagle population in southeast Spain: a basis for conservation

We analyse the factors influencing breeding success in a healthy population of Bonelli’s eagle (Hieraaetus fasciatus) from south-east Spain, a raptor that has suffered a serious decline in Europe. Between 18 and 33 pairs were annually monitored during the period 1994-2002. Several factors that may affect four breeding parameters were studied, namely human presence, vegetation, relief, climatic factors, intra- and inter-specific relationships, diet, prey abundance, nest building, adult mortality and age of reproduction. A consistently high breeding success was registered during the study period (productivity=1.43, SD=0.11), which was probably the result of high adult survival, adequate prey availability and mild weather conditions. However, a certain vulnerability to the presence of golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) and to human disturbance was observed. One interesting result was the reduced survival of young chicks on north-facing cliffs owing to colder conditions, which may partially explain the decline of the Bonelli’s eagle populations along its European distribution limits. We discuss the role of this healthy subpopulation in an Iberian metapopulation context, and propose that the potential interference of golden eagles should be taken into account when designing management strategies for Bonelli’s eagles. Finally, we pinpoint some conservation priorities and the importance of reducing the main causes of adult mortality (i.e. shooting and electrocution) to assure successful reproduction and survival of this species.     

Role of human-modified habitat in protecting specialist species: A case study in the threatened Florida Scrub-Jay

Habitat specialists are especially vulnerable to habitat alterations in vegetation structure and composition, making them difficult to protect and restore amidst agricultural landscapes. Protection strategies in such cases require information on species’ ability to survive and reproduce on marginal and modified habitat. We examined reproductive success, survival, and foraging efficiency of the Florida Scrub-Jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens), an extreme habitat specialist, in a human-modified habitat - regenerating pasture - along a pasture-native scrub interface. From 1985 to 2003, Florida Scrub-Jays were equally successful at producing young in regenerating pasture and native scrub. Production of eggs, nestlings, fledglings, independent young, and yearlings were not statistically different between territories containing pasture and those containing only scrub. Similar trends were observed for nest success and survival. When in pasture, individual jays were significantly more efficient at capturing small prey items, but significantly less efficient at capturing medium and large prey items. Availability of small prey items was significantly higher in pasture than in scrub; availability of medium and large prey items was not significantly different between habitat types. We conclude that regenerating pasture provides suitable supplemental habitat for Florida Scrub-Jays when in close proximity to native scrub, suggesting a novel conservation strategy for maintaining and potentially increasing local populations in fragmented agricultural settings. This case study illustrates how a broadened definition of ‘suitable habitat’ may augment existing conservation strategies for specialist species facing substantial and rapid modification of their native habitat.     

Polygyny and female breeding failure reduce effective population size in the lekking Gunnison sage-grouse

Populations with small effective sizes are at risk for inbreeding depression and loss of adaptive potential. Variance in reproductive success is one of several factors reducing effective population size (N_e) below the actual population size (N). Here, we investigate the effects of polygynous (skewed) mating and variation in female breeding success on the effective size of a small population of the Gunnison sage-grouse (Centrocercus minimus), a ground nesting bird with a lek mating system. During a two-year field study, we recorded attendance of marked birds at leks, male mating success, the reproductive success of radio-tagged females, and annual survival. We developed simulations to estimate the distribution of male reproductive success. Using these data, we estimated population size () and effective population size N_e for the study population. We also simulated the effects of population size, skewed vs. random mating, and female breeding failure on N_e. In our study population, the standardized variance in seasonal reproductive success was almost as high in females as in males, primarily due to a high rate of nest failure (73%). Estimated N_e (42) was 19% of in our population, below the level at which inbreeding depression is observed in captive breeding studies. A high hatching failure rate (28%) was also consistent with ongoing inbreeding depression. In the simulations, N_e was reduced by skewed male mating success, especially at larger population sizes, and by female breeding failure. Extrapolation of our results suggests that six of the seven extant populations of this species may have effective sizes low enough to induce inbreeding depression and hence that translocations may be needed to supplement genetic diversity.     

Pragmatic management increases a flagship species, the Himalayan brown bears, in Pakistan’s Deosai National Park

Deosai Plateau in Northern Pakistan was designated a national park to protect the largest remnant population of brown bears in Pakistan. The natural resources of this high elevation (3500-5000 m) park make a significant contribution to the livelihood of local and nomad communities. The present legislation excludes people from a park, which increases conflicts between management and local people. However, a pragmatic approach was adopted to involve people in conservation in Deosai. Community participation, achieved by recognizing rights and introducing incentives, reduced resistance against the conservation efforts, reduced grazing pressure in bear habitat and helped reduce poaching. The size of the brown bear population was set as an indicator of park success, and was monitored annually from 1993 through 2006. We observed a 5% annual growth of the brown bear population, suggesting that the conservation program has been successful due to a successful cooperation between an NGO, people, and the park management.The increase of the bear population is significant, because we observed an extremely low reproductive rate, due to late age of first reproduction (8.25 years), a long reproductive interval (5.7 years), and a small litter size (1.33). The reproductive rate of the Deosai population is the lowest yet documented for brown bear populations. Poor habitat quality, low quality food, high seasonality, and extreme weather conditions in the Himalaya probably explain the poor reproductive performance. Considering such low reproduction and known exchange of individuals with neighboring populations, we believe that the observed growth was a sum of reproduction and immigration. Brown bears are declining throughout South Asia and often have low-productive rates. Therefore, conservation efforts for brown bears in this region must target reducing human-caused mortalities, particularly of adult females. Involvement of people can increase efficiency in conservation, in addition to reducing cost and conflicts.