Negative priming of native soil organic carbon mineralization by oilseed biochars of contrasting quality

Oilseed‐derived biochar, a by‐product of pyrolysis for biodiesel production, is richer in aliphatic compounds than the commonly studied wood‐derived biochar, affecting both its mineralization in soil and its interaction with native soil organic carbon (nSOC). Here, we investigated the soil C sequestration potential of three different oilseed biochars derived from C₃ plant material: soyabean, castor bean and jatropha cake. The chemical composition of these biochars was determined by elemental analysis (CHN) and ¹³C NMR spectroscopy. The cumulative CO₂ efflux from 30‐day laboratory incubations of biochar mixed with a sandy soil containing nSOC from C₄ plants was measured as a proxy for mineralization rate. The relative contribution of each source to CO₂ production was calculated based on the ¹³C‐signatures of total CO₂ efflux and the source materials (soil and biochars). Our results showed that: (i) castor bean biochar contained relatively large amounts of aliphatic compounds, resulting in a greater mineralization rate than soyabean and jatropha biochars; (ii) CO₂ efflux from the soil‐biochar mixtures originated mostly from the biochars, suggesting that these biochars contain rapidly decomposable compounds; and (iii) all three oilseed biochars decelerated nSOC mineralization. This negative priming effect appeared to be caused by different factors. We conclude that oilseed biochars have the potential to increase soil C stocks directly and increase soil C sequestration indirectly in the short term through negative priming of nSOC mineralization.     

外加碳、氮对黄绵土有机质矿化与激发效应的影响

应用14C标记的葡萄糖和麦秸,15N标记的(NH4)2SO4和Ca(NO3)2对生黄绵土、菜园黄绵土土壤有机质的矿化与激发效应进行了研究。结果表明,外加有机质,特别是外加易分解的葡萄糖,和外加氮源,特别是外加(NH4)2SO4,对两种黄绵土土壤的有机质矿化与激发效应都有明显的促进作用,土壤有机质的矿化是高肥力菜园黄绵土高于低肥力生黄绵土,而有机质矿化的激发效应却是低肥力生黄绵土高于高肥力菜园黄绵土。外加有机质与外加N同时施入土壤时,外加N对外加有机质的矿化与激发效应同样有明显的促进作用,并发现外加有机质与外加N在促进土壤有机质矿化与激发效应过程中表现出正交互作用。激发效应对土壤肥力的更新和培养有积极作用。     

外加碳、氮对土壤氮矿化、固定与激发效应的影响

本文利用14C和15N对中国生黄绵土(坡地黄绵土)、菜园黄绵土和瑞典耕作草甸土的土壤氮矿化、固定与激发效应进行了研究。结果表明,外加碳、氮能促进土壤氮的矿化、固定与激发效应;促进作用的大小次序为外加NH4-15N大于外加NO3-15N,外加葡萄糖+NH4-15N大于外加葡萄糖+NO3-15N,外加麦秸+NH4-15N大于外加麦秸+NO3-15N,外加葡萄糖+NH4-15大于外加麦秸+NH4-15,外加葡萄糖+NO3-15N大于外加麦秸+NO3-15N;低肥力土壤高于高肥力土壤。在本文中提出了土壤净矿化氮的激发效应、土壤生物固定氮激发效应和土壤总矿化氮的总激发效应的概念,认为土壤氮的总激发效应更能反映土壤氮激发效应的实质。     

尕海湿地植被退化过程中土壤碳矿化特征研究

以甘南尕海4种不同退化程度的湿地(未退化(UD)、轻度退化(LD)、中度退化(MD)及重度退化(HD))为研究对象,采用室内5 ℃、15 ℃、25 ℃、35 ℃ 培养法,测定不同土层 SOC 矿化速率和累积矿化量,运用一级动力学方程对土壤的半矿化分解时间(T_1/2)、有机碳矿化潜势(C₀)等参数进行拟合,分析温度、土壤深度和退化程度对土壤碳矿化过程的影响。结果表明：(1)在不同土层、不同温度下,各植被退化程度湿地土壤有机碳 CO₂ 释放量在整个培养期间大致可以分三个阶段,0-4 d快速生成 CO₂ 阶段,4-27 d缓慢生成 CO₂ 阶段,27-41 d平稳阶段;0-10 cm 土层各培养温度下,土壤有机碳矿化速率表现为UD＞LD＞MD＞HD。(2)培养期间,不同退化湿地土壤有机碳矿化速率均随土层加深而降低,表层 0-10 cm的矿化速率(1.14~16.23 mg/(g?d))均显著高于10-20 cm(1.05~2.85 mg/(g?d))和20-40 cm(0.94~1.26 mg/(g?d))土层。(3)整个培养期内,不同退化湿地土壤有机碳总累积矿化量排序为5 ℃(34.54 mg/g)、15 ℃(46.67 mg/g)、25 ℃(58.28 mg/g)和35 ℃(86.46 mg/g)。(4)双库一级动力学方程的C₀值随退化程度增加呈递减趋势,而C₀/SOC随着温度的升高而降低。     

Pyrogenic carbon additions to soil counteract positive priming of soil carbon mineralization by plants

Important due to both its role in fire-affected ecosystems, and also its proposed intentional production and application for carbon (C) management, pyrogenic organic matter (PyOM) is thought to contain very stable forms of C. However, the mechanisms behind its interactions with non-PyOM soil organic C (SOC) remain speculative, with studies often showing short-term positive and then long-term negative “priming effects” on SOC decomposition after PyOM applications. Furthermore, studies of these interactions to date have been limited to systems that do not include plants. This study describes results from a 12-week greenhouse experiment where PyOM-SOC priming effects with and without plants were investigated using stable isotope partitioning. In addition, we investigated the optimal δ¹³C proxies for sources of SOC, PyOM, and plant-derived CO₂ emissions. The two-factorial experiment included the presence or absence of corn plants and of ¹³C-labelled PyOM. In order to control for pH and nutrient addition effects from PyOM, its pH was adjusted to that of the soil and optimal nutrient and water conditions were provided to the plants. The δ¹³C of PyOM sub-components were significantly different. Significant losses of 0.4% of the applied PyOM-C occurred in the first week. We find evidence for a “negative priming” effect of PyOM on SOC in the system (SOC losses are 48% lower with PyOM present), which occurred primarily during the first week, indicating it may be due to transient effects driven by easily mineralizable PyOM. Additionally, while the presence of corn plants resulted in significantly increased SOC losses (“positive priming”), PyOM additions counteract this effect, almost completely eliminating net C losses either by decreasing SOC decomposition or increasing corn C additions to soil. This highlights the importance of including plants in studies of PyOM-SOC interactions.     

The impacts of inorganic nitrogen application on mineralization of C-labelled maize and glucose, and on priming effect in saline alkaline soil

Organic matter dynamics and nutrient availability in saline alkaline soil of the former lake Texcoco will determine the success of a planned reforestation program. Uniformly labelled ¹⁴C-maize (MAI-treatment) and glucose (GLU-treatment) with or without 200 mg  kg⁻¹ soil (MAI-N treatment and GLU-N treatment, respectively) were added to soils with electrolytic conductivity (EC) 56 dS m⁻¹ (soil A) and 12 dS m⁻¹ (soil B) to investigate the importance of N availability on decomposition of organic material. Production of CO₂ and and inorganic N dynamics were monitored. The amount of ¹⁴C-glucose mineralized increased 1.8-times in the soil A, but had no effect in the soil B when 200 mg  kg⁻¹ soil was added, while the amount of ¹⁴C-maize mineralized increased 1.7 and 1.3-times when 200  kg⁻¹ soil was added in the soils A and B, respectively. Application of increased priming effect 3.7-times in the MAI-treatment of the soil A and 3.4-times in the GLU-treatment, while in the soil B the increase of priming effect was 4.1-times in the MAI-treatment and 3.7-times in the GLU-treatment. Of the 200 mg  kg⁻¹ added to both soils less than 10 mg NH₃-N kg⁻¹ was volatilized within one day, while 22 and 44 mg  kg⁻¹ soil was fixed on the soil matrix in the soil A and the soil B, respectively. Therefore more than 100 mg −N kg⁻¹ was immobilized into the microbial biomass within the first day. Concentration of nitrite increased sharply in all the treatments of soil A at the onset of the incubation followed by a decrease. A similar pattern was observed in the GLU-N and MAI-N treatments of the soil B, but not in the other treatments. A decrease in concentration of was observed in both soils followed by an increase in the MAI-N and GLU-N treatments of the soil B. It was found that application of had a stimulating effect on the decomposition of maize and glucose, and on the priming effect, while assimilatory reduction of resulted in an increase of in the soil A, and nitrification in the soil B.     

铁氧化物对厌氧水稻土中乙酸的矿化、转化及其激发效应的影响

乙酸是甲烷产生过程的重要底物,其在水稻土中的矿化和转化过程对水稻土碳循环和固碳减排具有重要意义。在长期淹水的水稻土中,铁作为重要的变价金属元素,对乙酸的矿化和转化可能具有重要影响。因此,本研究向水稻土中添加13C-乙酸、水铁矿和针铁矿,动态监测厌氧培养（100 d）期间CO2和CH4排放规律和土壤环境因子的变化规律,同时分析乙酸的矿化和转化特征以及CO2和CH4的激发效应,并解析不同铁氧化物在其中的作用效应。结果表明,培养结束后,只添加乙酸的处理中33%和36%的乙酸分别矿化为CH4和CO2,另外0.12%、2%和28%的乙酸分别形成了可溶性有机碳（DOC）、微生物量碳（MBC）和土壤有机碳（SOC）。乙酸添加引起了CO2负激发效应和CH4正激发效应。土壤产生CO2和CH4比例因乙酸的添加由3.46:1变为1.83:1。针铁矿的添加显著增加了乙酸来源的CO2累积排放量,但水铁矿对乙酸来源的CO2累积排放量却无显著影响。水铁矿和针铁矿均显著降低了SOC来源的CO2累积排放量,加剧了乙酸引起的CO2负激发效应。水铁矿和针铁矿均显著降低了乙酸来源的CH4累积排放量,对SOC来源的CH4累积排放量无显著影响。水铁矿和针铁矿显著增加了乙酸转化为MBC和SOC的比例。因此,乙酸在土壤中的矿化和转化行为会影响土壤原有有机碳产生CO2和CH4;水铁矿和针铁矿结晶程度不同,对乙酸的矿化、转化及其激发效应的影响也不同。研究结果可为稻田的固碳减排提供一定的理论依据和技术支撑。     

Biochar reduces the rhizosphere priming effect on soil organic carbon

Biochar has the potential to store carbon (C) in soils on a millennial time scale and hence it is proposed as a tool to aid in the mitigation of climate change. However, the presence of biochar in soil can induce either a positive or negative priming effect on native soil C, or the converse, which may either reduce or enhance the C storage potential of biochar. Thus far, priming effects between soil and biochar have been predominately assessed in the exclusion of plants. Therefore, this study set out with the aim to assess the priming effect of plants, i.e., rhizosphere priming effect (RPE) in the presence and absence of biochar and within different soil types. Three soils (Arenosol, Cambisol and Ferralsol) were used in full factorial combination with or without soybean plants and with or without 2% blue mallee biochar that was produced at 500 °C by slow pyrolysis. Plants were labelled with an isotopically depleted δ¹³C signature to that of the soil and biochar to allow the separation of plant-derived CO₂–C from the total CO₂–C. Carbon dioxide was trapped three times over a period of 13 days. Subsequent titration of the CO₂ trap samples followed by IRMS analysis was used to quantify the CO₂–C captured and its source. Biochar was found to have no effect on plant or microbial biomass. Plant treatments had significantly higher overall respiration rates than those without plants. Plants induced a negative priming in the Arenosol which was similar in the absence and presence of biochar. In the Cambisol, biochar induced a significant negative RPE in comparison to the positive RPE in the control. The RPE in the Ferralsol was positive and substantially decreased in the presence of biochar. Our results suggest that blue mallee biochar amendments may partially offset the positive RPE, or reduce it further where it is already negative.     

温度对不同年限日光温室土壤氮素矿化特性的影响

【目的】日光温室作为具有我国特色的一种高强度的栽培方式,过量施肥问题突出。随着温室栽培在我国北方地区规模的不断扩大,由此带来的土壤退化和地下水污染问题值得关注。不少研究表明,随着日光温室栽培年限的增加,土壤有机质含量不断增加;且温室栽培中的土壤温度与露地存在很大差异,其土壤氮素矿化特性如何,尚缺乏研究。【方法】本研究以位于黄土高原南部陕西省杨凌示范区不同栽培年限的日光温室土壤为研究对象,采用室内好气培养法(84 d)测定不同培养温度(20℃和30℃)对不同年限温室(0 3年)土壤0—20 cm及20—40cm土层氮素矿化量,采用一级动力学方程拟合土壤氮素矿化曲线,根据土壤氮矿化势(N0)评价不同栽培年限温室土壤氮素矿化特性。【结果】1)随着日光温室栽培年限的增加,土壤有机质、全氮含量和氮素累积矿化量随之显著增加。2)30℃的土壤氮素累积矿化量高于20℃的矿化累积量;栽培年限长的日光温室矿化作用对温度的敏感程度高于年限短的温室。3)若温度和栽培年限同时增加,土壤氮素累积矿化量随之增加,说明温度和栽培年限对土壤氮素净矿化量有一定的交互作用,但差异不显著(P0.05)。4)日光温室栽培年限越长,土壤氮矿化势(N0)越大;与种植前相比,第2a、3a温室土壤氮矿化势增加了5.59和11.48倍。5)回归分析表明,0—20 cm土层土壤有机质含量每增加1 g/kg,20℃和30℃条件下土壤氮矿化势(No)分别增加2.70及3.18 mg/kg;土壤全氮含量每增加1g/kg,No分别增加37.28及43.12 mg/kg。【结论】日光温室土壤氮素矿化量随其栽培年限的增加显著增加;培养温度由20℃增加到30℃,土壤氮素矿化量也明显增加,日光温室栽培年限和温度对土壤氮矿化有一定的正交互效应。因此,在日光温室氮素管理中应考虑栽培年限和温度对土壤氮素矿化的影响,以采取针对性的氮素管理措施。     

不同复垦模式及复垦年限对土壤微生物的影响

为了研究不同复垦年限及复垦植被模式对复垦土壤生物肥力的影响,通过野外调查和采样分析,对平朔安太堡露天煤矿不同复垦年限及复垦植被模式下和原地貌（对照）土壤中细菌、放线菌和真菌3种微生物的数量及变化进行了研究。结果表明：1）从微生物总数来看,随着复垦年限的增加,微生物总数呈增加的趋势,复垦13a的土壤微生物总数达到了624.35×105～1 448.19×105 cfu/g,平均可达1 183.01×105 cfu/g（除自燃地外）,最高的和原地貌已相当。2）在不同复垦年限及复垦模式复垦地0～20 cm表层土壤微生物三大类区系组成中,细菌数量占绝对优势（95%以上）,放线菌数量次之,真菌数量最少。3）不同复垦植被配置方式对复垦土壤微生物数量的增加作用不同。在同一地点不同复垦模式复垦7 a的土壤中微生物数量的变化趋势是紫穗槐＞沙枣＞沙棘。不同复垦模式复垦13 a,从微生物角度评价它们的生态效益是：云杉×油松×落叶松＞刺槐×油松×榆树＞刺槐×柠条＞冰草×刺槐×柠条。4）从土壤微生物与复垦土壤养分的相关系数来看,细菌数量和微生物总数与土壤有机质、碱解氮含量呈显著正相关。     

添加牛粪对长期不同施肥潮土有机碳矿化的影响及激发效应

为了探讨长期不同施肥潮土有机碳矿化对添加牛粪的响应特征及添加牛粪对长期不同施肥潮土有机碳矿化的激发效应,以始建于1986年的长期定位试验为平台,通过室内恒温培养的方法研究添加等氮量牛粪后长期不同施肥(不施肥,CK;常量有机肥,SMA;常量化肥,SMF;常量有机无机配施,1/2(SMA+SMF))潮土有机碳矿化、土壤有机碳及活性碳库组分(微生物量碳、可溶性有机碳、颗粒有机碳和易氧化有机碳)含量的变化特征。结果表明:无论添加牛粪与否,长期不同施肥潮土有机碳矿化过程均符合一级动力学方程,而牛粪的添加显著增加了长期不施肥、长期单施化肥和长期有机无机配施土壤的有机碳矿化速率常数,增长幅度分别为21.74%、35.00%和45.00%;添加牛粪提高了长期不同施肥潮土有机碳、微生物量碳、颗粒有机碳和易氧化有机碳含量,却显著降低了可溶性有机碳含量;牛粪对长期不施肥、长期施用常量有机肥、常量化肥和常量有机无机配施潮土有机碳矿化的正激发效应分别达到了48.56%、3.60%、48.43%和3.92%,且对长期不施肥及长期施用常量化肥潮土的激发效应显著高于对长期施用常量有机肥及长期有机无机配施土壤;冗余分析显示添加牛粪对长期不同施肥土壤有机碳矿化的激发效应与土壤活性组分碳氮比呈正相关,与土壤养分含量呈负相关。该研究不仅为合理施用有机肥和实现农田生态系统的可持续发展提供理论依据,还有利于实现农业资源再利用及其效益最大化。     

Stimulating effect of earthworm excreta on the mineralization of nitrogen compounds in soil

The effect of excreta of earthworm species Aporrectodea caliginosa and Eisenia fetida on the mineralization of nitrogen compounds in soils has been studied. A single application of excreta obtained from three earthworms in one day increased the formation of nitrate nitrogen compounds in the soil by 10–50%. The application of ammonium nitrogen (in the form of NH₄Cl) in amounts equivalent to the ammonium nitrogen content in the daily excreta of three earthworms had the same effect on the mineralization of nitrogen compounds. The effect of earthworm excreta, as well as the effect of ammonium nitrogen, on the nitrification process was an order of magnitude higher than their contribution to the formation of nitrates due to the oxidation of the introduced ammonium. Hence, ammonium—an important component of the earthworm excreta—can exert a stimulating effect on nitrification processes in the soil and produce long-term cumulative effects that are much more significant than the direct effect of this nitrogen compound.     

Modelling mineralization of plant residues on soil: effect of physical protection

A mechanistic dynamic model (Verberne et al. 1990) was used to simulate mineralization of white-clover materials in a loam (25% clay) and a sandy loam soil (5% clay). I tested the model‘s ability to simulate the observed temporal patterns and to take account of altered physical protection as affected by soil compaction or spatial residue distribution. With default parameter values, the model greatly overestimated net N mineralization. The model was very sensitive to changes in the C/N ratio of the microbial biomass. Reducing this value from 8.0 to 6.0 improved the model performance. Nevertheless, initial N mineralization was appreciably overestimated. Two hypotheses may explain the discrepancies: (1) the C/N ratio of the microbial biomass is initially low (3–4) and gradually increases because of a succession from bacterial- to fungal-dominated biomass (H ₁); (2) the C/N ratio of the substrates first attacked by microorganisms, i.e. water-soluble components such as sugars and free amino acids, is higher than the average value (6.0) assumed for the readily decomposable fraction (H ₂). Conceptually, this fraction originally included N-containing polymers (proteins and nucleic acids), which in large part are water insoluble and probably attacked somewhat later than the monomers. Modification of the model, either by implementing a dynamic C/N ratio of the biomass and the effect of faunal grazing or by increasing the C/N ratio of the easily decomposable fraction, improved the model performance substantially. The two hypotheses need to be tested experimentally. The model adequately simulated measured effects of spatial residue distribution and soil compaction on N mineralization after adjustment or parameter values regulating physical protection of microbial biomass and metabolites. Moreover, there was a good agreement between simulated and measured microbial biomass N in the two soils. Received: 9 December 1996     

长期处于植被条件下香港土壤中氮的矿化

This research examined nitrogen mineralization in the top 10 cm of soils with a vegetation gradient in Hong Kong at sites where fire has been absent for 0, 1, 3, 6 and 17 years (at the time of the study), and the relationships between N mineralization and successional development of vegetation in the absence of fire. The sites including a newly burnt area (S1), short grassland (S2), tall grassland (S3), mixed tall grassland and shrubland (S4), and woodland (S5) were selected, with the in situ core incubation method used to estimate nitrogen mineralization. Throughout the 60-day incubation in four periods, more nitrogen was mineralized at the S3 and S4 sites, the predominantly grassland sites, which contained the highest levels of soil organic matter (SOM) and total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), than the S1 site, while immobilization occurred at the S2 and S5 sites. Leaching loss decreased with successional development of the vegetation, in the order of S1 > S2 > S3 > S4 > S5. The pattern of nitrogen uptake with ecological succession was less conspicuous, being complicated by the immediate effect of fire and possibly the ability of the woodland species to extract nitrogen from the deeper ground. In the absence of fire for 3 to 6 years, the build-up of SOM and TKN was accompanied by active mineralization, thus paving the way for the invasion of shrub and tree species. A close relationship existed between nitrogen mineralization and ecological succession with this vegetation gradient. Inherent mechanisms to preserve nitrogen in a fire-prone environment including immobilization and uptake and the practical relevance of nitrogen mineralization to reforestation are discussed.     

黄土高原南部人工植被作用下的土壤水分研究

在大量野外调查和室内测定的基础上,研究了黄土高原南部地区丰水年前后不同人工植被下0～6m土壤水分含量。研究表明,年均降雨量600mm左右的正常年份,该区内杨树林、法国梧桐林和中国梧桐林下1.5～4m土层平均含水量约为90g/kg左右,发育了弱的土壤干化层,4～6m土层平均含水量约为120g/kg,水分状况优于上部土层。麦地和草地下0～6m水分状况良好,未出现土壤干化现象。丰水年充足的降水后所有林木下土壤干层消失,水分得到很好的恢复,说明该区并未形成永久性土壤干层,这为该区人工植被的良好生长提供了必要的条件。但目前加速发展的生态建设及经济林业仍会给该区土壤水分良性循环带来威胁,因此应加强人工植被下土壤水分的长期观测,合理引种、适当栽培,在收益的同时保证生态环境的可持续发展。     

Rhizosphere priming of soil organic matter by bacterial groups in a grassland soil

Plants often impact the rate of native soil organic matter turnover through root interactions with soil organisms; however the role of root-microbial interactions in mediation of the “priming effect” is not well understood. We examined the effects of living plant roots and N fertilization on belowground C dynamics in a California annual grassland soil (Haploxeralf) during a two-year greenhouse study. The fate of ¹³C-labeled belowground C (roots and organic matter) was followed under planted (Avena barbata) and unplanted conditions, and with and without supplemental N (20 kg N ha⁻¹ season⁻¹) over two periods of plant growth, each followed by a dry, fallow period of 120 d. Turnover of belowground ¹³C SOM was followed using ¹³C-phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) biomarkers. Living roots increased the turnover and loss of belowground ¹³C compared with unplanted soils. Planted soils had 20% less belowground ¹³C present than in unplanted soils after 2 cycles of planting and fallow. After 2 treatment cycles, unlabeled soil C was 4.8% higher in planted soils than unplanted. The addition of N to soils decreased the turnover of enriched belowground ¹³C during the first treatment season in both planted and unplanted soils, however no effect of N was observed thereafter. Our findings suggest that A. barbata may increase soil C levels over time because root and exudate C inputs are significant, but that increase will be moderated by an overall faster C mineralization rate of belowground C. N addition may slow soil C losses; however, the effect was minor and transient in this system. The labeled root-derived ¹³C was initially recovered in gram negative (highest enrichment), gram positive, and fungal biomarkers. With successive growing seasons, the labeled C in the gram negative and fungal markers declined, while gram positive markers continued to accumulate labeled belowground C. The rhizosphere of A. barbata shifted the microbial community composition, resulting in greater abundances of gram negative markers and lower abundances of gram positive, actinobacteria and cyclopropyl PLFA markers compared to unplanted soil. However, the longer-term utilization of labeled belowground C by gram positive bacteria was enhanced in the rhizosphere microbial community compared with unplanted soils. We suggest that the activities of gram positive bacteria may be major controllers of multi-year rhizosphere-related priming of SOM decomposition.     

Phosphorus enrichment helps increase soil carbon mineralization in vegetation along an urban-to-rural gradient,Nanchang, China

We used four vegetation types located along an urban–suburban–rural gradient in Nanchang, China to study how the deposition of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in the urban area affected soil carbon (C) cycling. We found that total P, nitrate (NO₃⁻–N), available P, and the abundances of culturable bacteria, actinobacteria, and nitrifying bacteria in soils, collected to 15 cm depth in August of 2008, decreased along the urban-to-rural gradient (P < 0.05); the C/P and N/P ratios, ammonium (NH₄⁺–N), and culturable fungi abundance showed the reverse trends; whereas soil organic C, total N, C/N, mineral N, and the activities of sucrase and neutraland acid phosphatase showed no pattern with gradient and vegetation type. Compared to suburban and rural sites, total and available P in soil increased 168% and 131%, 47% and 139%, respectively in urban sites. The cumulative amount of CO₂ emission per gram of soil (C_min, incubated from 2 to 43 days) varied little along the urban-to-rural gradient, but showed positive correlations with organic C, total N, total P, nitrate, mineral N concentrations, C/N, bacteria and actinobacteria abundances, sucrase and acid phosphatase activities. In contrast, the cumulative amount of CO₂ produced per gram organic C (C_min/OC) within the incubation period was influenced by gradient, vegetation type, and their interaction, and values were about 35% greater in the urban than in suburban and rural sites. The relationship between elevated C_min/OC in urban vegetations and the enrichment of P in organic matter (P/C ratio) suggests that P coming from urban household waste can degrade the stability of organic C in urban soils.     

Effect of vegetation cover on soil erosion in a mountainous watershed

We applied the Revised Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) to assess levels of soil loss in a Geographic Information System (GIS). In this study, we used the k-NN technique to estimate vegetation cover by integrating Landsat ETM+ scenes and field data with optimal parameters. We evaluated the root mean square errors and significance of biases at the pixel level in order to determine the optimal parameters. The accuracy of vegetation cover estimation by the k-NN technique was compared to that predicted by a regression function using Landsat ETM+ bands and field measurements as well as to that predicted by the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). We used a regression equation to calculate the cover management (C) factor of the RUSLE from vegetation cover data. On the basis of the quantitative model of soil erosion, we explored the relationship between soil loss and its influencing factors, and identified areas at high erosion risk. The results showed that the k-NN method can predict vegetation cover more accurately for image pixels at the landscape level than can the other two methods examined in this study. Of those factors, the C-factor is one of the most important affecting soil erosion in the region. Scenarios with different vegetation cover on high-risk areas showed that greater vegetation cover can considerably reduce the loss of soil erosion. The k-NN technique provides a new method to estimate the C-factor for RUSLE erosion mapping. The quantitative model of different vegetation cover scenarios provides information on how vegetation restoration could reduce erosion.